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BIBLICAL  HERMENEUTICS. 


CHIEFLY   A    TRANSLATION 


MANUEL  D'HERMENEUTIQUE  BIBLIQUE,  PAR  J.  K.  CELLERIER,  PROFESSEUR 
DE  THEOLOGIE  EXEGETIQUE  A  L'ACADEMIE  DE  GENEVE. 


BY 

CHARLES    ELLIOTT,    D.D., 

AND 

REV.   WILLIAM  JUSTIN    HARSHA. 


De  Deo  homo  dixit,  et  quidem  inspiratus  a  Deo,  sed  tamen  homo. — St.  Augustine. 
(Tract.  I.  in  Joann.  Evang.) 


NEW    YORK: 
ANSON    D.    F.    RANDOLPH    &    COMPANY, 

9OO    BROADWAY,    COR.    20th    STREET. 


COPYRIGHT,    1 88 1,   BY 
ANSON  D.   F.   RANDOLPH  &  COMPANY. 


NEW  YORK: 
EDWARD    O.   JENKINS,  ROBERT   RUTTER, 

Printer  and  Stereotyper,  Binder^ 

20  North  William  St.  116  and  118  East  14th  Street. 


PREFACE. 


The  following  treatise  is  principally  a  translation  of  the 
"Manuel  d'Hermeneutique  "of  the  late  M.  Cellerier,  Profes- 
sor in  the  Academy  of  Geneva,  Switzerland.  Of  that  work, 
an  able  hermeneut,  the  late  Principal  Fairbairn,  of  Glasgow, 
Scotland,  says,  that  "  however  objectionable  in  respect  to  the 
principles  it  occasionally  enunciates,  it  is  one  of  the  most 
systematic  and  complete  in  form."*  The  translator  of  Dr.  A. 
Immer's  "  Hermeneutics  of  the  New  Testament,"  remarks  : 
"Cellerier,  Manuel  d'Hermeneutique  Biblique "  ....  is 
"very  valuable,  as  well  for  the  principles  set  forth,  as  for  the 
abundant  examples  of  the  application  of  the  principles."! 

The  objectional  principles  to  which  Dr.  Fairbairn  alludes, 
have  been  eliminated,  and  others,  especially  on  the  subject  of 
inspiration,  have  been  substituted  by  the  senior  translator  and 
editor,  who  alone  is  responsible  for  all  omissions,  changes, 
and  additions.  Though  he  assumes  this  responsibility,  he 
wishes,  at  the  same  time,  the  book  to  appear  as  the  joint  pro- 
duction of  himself  and  of  his  friend  and  former  pupil,  the 
Rev.  W.  J.  Harsha,  without  whose  assistance  he  could  not 
have  found  time  to  finish  it. 

Consent  to  the  translation  and  to  the  changes  made  has 
been  obtained  from  the  family  of  Professor  Cellerier  by  my 
friend,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Godet,  Professor  of  Theology,  Neuchatel, 
Switzerland.     In   the  letter  containing  the  permission,  Dr. 


*  Preface  to  the  "  Hermeneutical  Manual,"  by  Patrick  Fairbairn, 
D.D.     Philadelphia:  Smith,  English  &  Co.,  1859. 

f  Dr.  Immer's  "  Hermeneutics  of  the  New  Testament,"  page  159, 
note.     Andover  :  Warren  F.  Draper,  1877. 


iv  Preface. 

Godet  says  :  u  La  famille  Cellerier  consent  de  tout  son  cceur 
a  l'usage  que  vous  desirez  faire  de  l'ouvrage  de  venerable 
Professeur  Cellerier.  Elle  demande  simplement  que  vous 
ayez  la  bonte  d'indiquer  au  lecteur  le  rapport  entre  votre 
travail  et  celui  de  M.  Cellerier." 

Dr.  G.,  in  the  same  letter,  suggests  the  propriety  of  indi- 
cating, by  certain  marks,  the  matter  of  Prof.  Cellerier  and  that 
of  the  translators,  which  suggestion  has  not  been  literally  fol- 
lowed, inasmuch  as  it  would  'interrupt  the  continuity  of  the 
work.  It  has  been  deemed  best  to  give  the  numbers  of  the 
sections  that  have  been  changed  or  omitted.  The  numbers 
have  been  taken  from  Prof.  Cellerier's  work,  and  are  the 
following : 

(i).  Sections  partly  omitted,  viz.,  21,  25,  30,  31,  54,  57,  60, 
71,  79,  81,  90,  91,  93,  96,  104,  116,  119,  122,  155,  170,  179. 

(2).  Sections  entirely  omitted,  viz,  26,  38,  65,  74,  153,  163, 
165,  166.  168,  169,  176,  184,  185,  187,  188,  and  from  189  to 
210  inclusive. 

(3).  Sections  modified,  viz,  20,  170,  175,  182,  183. 

(4).  Sections  to  which  additions  have  been  made,  viz,  1, 
6,  8,  10,  11,  12,  27,  28,  39,  43,  126. 

(5).  Sections  supplied  by  the  senior  translator,  the  numbers 
of  which  correspond  to  those  of  the  translation,  viz,  145, 
146,  147,  148,  149. 

Several  sections  are  occasionally  thrown  into  one. 

These  changes,  though  not  in  accordance  with  the  letter  of 
Dr.  Godet's  suggestions,  are  yet  in  harmony  with  their  spirit, 
and  are,  in  the  opinion  of  the  translators,  within  the  limits 
prescribed  by  Prof.  Cellerier's  family.  In  its  character  as  a 
scientific  treatise,  the  work  remains  as  it  came  from  the  hands 
of  its  author. 

It  is  published  under  the  impression  that  a  convenient 
Manual  on  the  subject  of  Hermeneutics  is  needed  for  the  use 
of  ministers  of  the  Gospel,  and  of  Students  of  Theology. 
The  arrangement  is  as  nearly  complete  as  it  can  be  made ; 
and  for  the  purposes  of  a  text-book,  it  is  perhaps  superior  to 
anything  of  the  kind  that  has  appeared. 


Preface.  v 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  book  treats  of  general,  not 
special  Hermeneutics.  There  are  works,  such  as  Dr.  David- 
son's "  Sacred  Hermeneutics,"  Dr.  Fairbairn's  "  Hermeneuti- 
cal  Manual,"  and  Dr.  Immer's  "  Hermeneutics  of  the  New 
Testament,"  which  discuss  particular  points  and  special  ques- 
tions more  fully  than  that  of  Prof.  Cellerier  does ;  but  the 
latter  covers  better  than  any  of  them  the  whole  field  of  Her- 
meneutical  Science. 

If  this  work  shall  promote  in  any  degree  the  study  and 
right  understanding  of  God's  Holy  Word,  the  object  of  the 
translators  and  editors  will  be  accomplished. 

To  the  glory  of  Him,  who  "  hath  in  these  last  days  spoken 
unto  us  by  His  Son  "  (Heb.  i.  2),  it  is  dedicated. 

Charles  Elliott. 
Chicago,  March,  1879. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION, 1-55 

SECTION  FIRST. 
Nature  of  Hermeneutics. 
Par.  1. — Relation  of  Hermeneutics  to  Exegetical  Theol- 
ogy,      1-2 

"      2. — Definition  of  Hermeneutics  and  Distinctions,  3-4 

"      3. — Distinctions  Continued,  ....  4-6 

"     4. — Importance  of  Hermeneutics,  .        .        .  6-7 

SECTION   SECOND. 
History  of  Hermeneutical  Principles. 
Par.  5. — First  Period. — From  the  time  of  the  Apostles 

until  the  time  of  Origen,   ....  8-9 

''      6. — Second    Period. —  Fathers   of  the    Church; 

third,  fourth,  and  fifth  centuries,  .  .  9-12 
"  7. — Third  Period. — The  Middle  Ages,  .  .  12-13 
"  8. — Fourth  Period. — The  Reformation,  .  .  13-18 
"  9. — Fifth  Period. — Seventeenth  Century,  .  .  18-20 
"  10. — Sixth  Period. — Reactions  and  Struggles  dur- 
ing the  first  part  of  the  Eighteenth  Cent- 
ury,                      20-24 

"    11. — Seventh  Period. — The  Scientific  Era. — Latter 
part  of  the  Eighteenth  and  beginning  of 
the  Nineteenth  Centuries,         .         .        .        24-29 
"    12. — Eighth  Period.— Present  Era,  .         .         .         29-34 

SECTION    THIRD. 
The  Unity  of  the  Sense  of  Scripture. 
Par.  13. — State  of  the  Question,     .        .  .  35 

"      14. — Examination  a  Priori,  ....         35—37 


viii  Contents. 

PAR.  15. — Consequences  of  the  hypothesis  of  a  multiple 

sense 37-39 

"      16. — Examination  a  Posteriori,      ....  39-40 

"      17. — Philological  Facts, 40-42 

"      18. — Symbolical  Facts, 42-43 

"      19. — Prophetical  Facts, 44-46 

"      20. — Typical  Facts, 46-47 

"      21. — Results  of  these  Facts,  ....  47-48 

"      22. — Tendencies  which  have  favored  the  theory  of 

a  double  sense, 48-50 

SECTION   FOURTH. 
Natural  Division  of  Hermeneutics. 

Par.  23. — General  Reflections, 51-52 

"      24. — Analysis  of  the  Elements  of  the  Science       .         52-54 
"      25. — Conditions  necessary  to  the   prosecution  of 

the  Science, 54- 5  5 

PART  FIRST. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL  HERMENEUTICS. 
Par.  26. — Its  Necessity, 56-57 

SECTION   FIRST. 
Faculties  with  which  the  Interpreter  should  be  En- 
dowed. 

Par.  27. — Intellectual  Faculties, 58—59 

"     28. — Moral  Faculties, 59~6o 

SECTION   SECOND. 
Dispositions  Necessary  to  the  Interpreter. 

Par.  29. — Love  of  Truth, 61-64 

"    30. — Search  for  Clear  Ideas, 64-66 

"     31. — Faith  and  Piety, 66-69 

SECTION  THIRD. 
Duties  of  the  Interpreter. 
Par.  32. — His  examination  to  embrace  the  whole  Bible,         70-71 
"      33. — His  examination  to  be  made  with  distrust  of 
self,  and  with  a  feeling  of  his  own  weak- 
ness,          71-72 


Contents.  ix 

PART    SECOND. 

GRAMMATICAL  HERMENEUTICS. 

I.  DIFFICULTIES. 

Par.  34.— Nature  of  the  Task 73~74 

"     35. — Want   of   sufficient  Analogy  between  Lan- 
guages,         74-75 

"      36. — Variations  in  the  Sense  of  Words,  .         .  75—76 

"      37. — Special  Nature  of  the  Languages  of  the  Holy 

Scriptures, 7&-77 

II.  RESOURCES  AND  DUTIES. 
Par.  38.— Considered  Generally, 77~78 

SECTION  FIRST. 
Resources  Derived  from  the  Text. 
PAR.  39. — Employment  of  the  Original  Texts,       .         .         79-81 

A.  Study  of  the  Words. 

Par.  40. — Ordinary  Resources  of  Philology,  .         .         .  81-83 
"      41. — Study  of  the  Special  Language  of  the  New 

Testament, 83-86 

"      42. — Rules  and  Suggestions,  ....  86-87 

"      43. — Diversity  of   Language   among  the   Sacred 

Writers, 87-89 

B.  Study  of  Constructions. 

Par.  44. — Considered  Generally, 90 

"      45. — Idioms, 90-92 

"      46. — Anomalies, 92-93 

"      47. — Exceptions  of  Form, 93~97 

"     48. — Augmentations  of  Sense,       ....  97-98 

"     49. — Rules 9S--99 

C.  Study  of  the  Phrases  and  the  Discourse. 

Par.  50. — Modifications  of  the   General   Sense   of  the 

Phrases, 99-100 


:  Contents. 

SECTION   SECOND. 

Resources  Derived  from  the  Context. 

Far.  51. — Considered  Generally,             ....  101 
"      52. — Determination  of  Vague  Words  and  of  Vari- 
able Senses, 102-105 

"      53. — Determination   of  the   Local    and    General 

Senses, 105-107 

"      54. — Determination  of  Obscure  Phrases,        .         .     107-109 
"      55- — Faults  of  Interpreters  with  reference  to  the 

Context, iio-iii 

"     56. — Duty  of  the  Interpreter  in  reference  to  the 

Context, in 

SECTION  THIRD. 

Resources  Derived  from  Parallel  Texts. 

Par.  57. — Considered  Generally, 11 2-1 14 

"      58. — Parallels  of  Words, 114-116 

SECTION  FOURTH. 

Resources  Foreign  to  the  Text, 

PAR.  59. — General  Suggestions, 11 7-1 18 

"      60. — A  choice  to  be  made, 118-119 

"     61. — Use  to  be  made, 119-121 


PART    THIRD. 
HISTORICAL  HERMENEUTICS. 

INTRODUCTION. 
Par.  62. — Definitions  and  Explanations,         .         .         .     122-123 

SECTION  FIRST. 

Personal  Circumstances  of  the  Author. 

Par.  63. — Education  and  Profession,  ....  124-125 
"  64. — Degree  of  Natural  Intelligence,  .  .  .  125-126 
"     65. — Moral  Character, 126-127 


Contents. 


XI 


SECTION  SECOND. 
Social  Circumstances  of  the  Author. 

Par.  66. — Geographical  Circumstances,  .         .         .  128-129 

"      67. — Natural  and  Ordinary  Circumstances,    .         .  129-130 

"     68.— Political  Position, 130-132 

"      69. — Religious  Circumstances 132-134 

"     70. — Traces  left  in  the  Sacred  Writings  by  these 

Circumstances, 134-136 

"     71. — Means  to  be  employed  by  the  Interpreter      .  136-137 


SECTION  THIRD. 
Philological  Habits  of  the  Authors. 
Par.  72. — Generally  Considered, 138 

A.  Language  Wanting  in  Precision. 

Par.  73. — A  Priori.     Authors  and  Language,      .        .  138-139 

"     74. — Style  of  the  Bible, 1 39-141 

"     75. — Rules  arising  from  the  peculiar  nature  of  the 

Style, 141-142 

B.  Figurative  Language. 

Par.  76. — Relation  of  this  Fact  to  Inspiration,       .  .  142-144 

"      77. — Consequences  to  Hermeneutics,     .         .  .  144 

"      78.— Investigation  of  Figurative  Language,  .  145 

"     79.— Investigation  of  the  Figurative  Sense,    .  .  146-151 


SECTION  FOURTH. 

Circumstances  Peculiar  to  the  Writings. 

A.  Internal  Circumstances. 

Par.  80. — Influence  of  the  Diversity  of  Kinds,       .        .  152-153 

"      81. — The  Historical  Writings,         ....  153-154 

"      82. — Chronology 154-156 

"      83. — Influence   of  the    Individuality   of  the   His- 
torians,         156-157 

"      84. — The  Didactic  Writings,  ....  157-158 

"      85. — Oratorical  Writings, 158-159 

"      86. — Poetical  Writings, 159-160 


Xll 


Contents. 


B.  External  Circumstances  of  the  Writings. 
Par.  87. — Persons  to  whom  the  Writings  were  addressed 

— influence  upon  the  Writings,           .         .  160-162 

"     88. — Circumstances  of  the  Epoch           .         .         .  162 

"      89. — Occasion  of  the  Writing,        ....  162-164 

"      90. — Object  of  the  Writing 164-165 

"      91. — Importance  of  the  Investigation,             .         .  165-166 

"      92. — Abuse  of  the  Consideration  of  the  Object,    .  166-167 

"      93. — Means  of  Determining  the  Object,         .         .  167-169 


PART    FOURTH. 

SCRIPTURAL  HERMENEUTICS. 
Par.  94. — Generally  Considered,     .... 


170-171 


SECTION  FIRST. 
Analogy   of   Faith. 
Par.  95. — Its  Nature  and  Principle,         ....     172-173 
A.  Conditions. 
"      96. — Superior  Degrees  of  Analogy  of  Faith,          .     173-175 
"     97. — Inferior  Degrees  of  Analogy  of  Faith,  .         .     175-177 
"      98. — Number,  unanimity,  clearness,  and  distribu- 
tion,       177-178 

B.  Real  Utility  of  the  analogy  of  Faith. 

"      99. — General  Utility,  179 

"    100. — Special  Utility, 179-180 

"    101. — Hermeneutical  Consequences,         .         .         .     180-181 
"    102. — Doctrinal  Consequences,         ....     181-182 

SECTION  SECOND. 

Parallels    of    Ideas. 

A.  Classification  and  Graduation  of  the  Parellels 

of  Ideas. 
Par.  103. — Necessity  and  Principle  of  this  Classification,     184-185 
"      104. — Attempt  at  Graduation,        ....     185-187 

B.  Appreciation  of  the  Utility  of  Parallels. 
"      105. — Considered  Generally,  ....     187-188 

"      106. — Particular  Cases  of  Utility,  ....     188-192 


Conte?its.  xiii 

C.  RULES  AND  CAUTIONS. 

i.  In  the  Choice  of  Parallels. 

Par.  107.— Avoid  the  Parallels  of  Words,       .         .         .  192-193 

"      108. — Avoid  Seeming,  but  false  Parallels,       .         .  193-195 

2.  In  the  Use  of  Parallels. 

Par.  109. — Logical  Use, i95-!97 

"      no. — True  Nature  of  Doctrinal  Clearness,   .        .  197-199 

"      III. — Careful  and  Judicious  Use,  ....  199 

SECTION  THIRD. 

Special  Study  of  Each  of  the  Sacred  Books. 

Par.  112. — Principle  of  this  Study,          ....  200 

"      113. — The  subject  Developed,        ....  201-203 

1.  Method  of  each  sacred  author,         .        .  201-202 

2.  Instruction  and  doctrine,           .         .         .  202-203 

SECTION  FOURTH. 
Moral  and  Intellectual  Character  of  the  Bible. 

Par.  114. — Introduction, 204 

A.  Nature  of  the  Principle. 

Par.  1 1 5. — Its  Nature  Explained, 204-206 

B.  Application  of  the  Principle. 

"      116. — General  Application, 206-209 

"      117. — Modified  Application 209 

"      118. — Special  Application  to  the  New  Testament,  209-211 

"      119. — Special  Application  to  the  Old  Testament,  .  211-212 

C.  Appreciation  of  the  Principle. 

Par.  120.— Objections 212-213 

"      121. — Value  of  these  Objections,  ....  213-214 

"      122. — Limits  of  the  Principle 215 

"      123. — Consequences  of  the  Principle,     .        .        .  216 


XIV 


Contents. 


PART    FIFTH. 
DOCTRINAL    HERMENEUTICS. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Par.  124. — Exposition  of  the  Subject,     ....  217-218 

"     125. — Critical  Question, 218-220 

"     126. — Different  Methods  of  Answering  the  Ques- 
tion,      220-221 

"      127. — The  true  Method, 221 


Par.  128, 


SECTION  FIRST. 
Proofs  of  Inspiration. 
-Definition  and  Exposition,     . 

A.  Proofs. 


"      129. — Arguments  a  Priori, 

"      130. — Biblical  Arguments,  or  the  Argument  drawn 

from  the  testimony  of  Scripture, 
"      131. — Historical  Argument,  , 

"      132. — Critical  Argument, 

"      J33- — Argument  from  Feeling,  or  the  Testimony 

of  the  Holy  Spirit, 

B.  Consequences. 
Par.  134. — General  Indetermination,      .... 
"      135. — Consequences  from  the  Proofs  adduced, 
"      136. — Questions  to  be  determined, 


222-223 

223-228 

229-232 
232-235 
235-237 

237-239 


239-240 

240-242 

242 


SECTION  SECOND. 

Nature  of  Inspiration. 

First  Question  relating  to  the  Individuality 

of  the  Sacred  Writers. 

CJiaptcr  First. — Facts. 
A.  Anterior  Facts. 

Par.  137. — Inspiration  was  imparted  sometimes  succes- 
sively and  by  degrees 243-244 

"      138. — The  religious    knowledge  of  inspired   men 

was  sometimes  acquired  by  human  means,     244-245 


Contents. 


xv 


B.    Posterior   Facts. 
i.  Historical  Facts. 
Par.  139. — Activity  and  Liberty,     . 
"     140. — Uncertainty  and  errors  of  Conduct, 

2.  Critical  Facts. 


246-247 
247 


Par.  141. — Ordinary  Tone  of  the  Writings,  .         .         .  248 

"     142. — Influence  of  Circumstances,           .         .         .  248-249 
"     143. — Prominent   Diversities    among  the   Sacred 

Writers 250-251 

"      144. — Declarations  of  the  Sacred  Writers,     .        .  251 

Chapter  Second. 

The  Relation  of  Inspiration  to  the  Indi- 
viduality of  the  Sacred  Writers. 


Par.  145. — The  Bible  contains  two  elements — a  divine 
and  a  human, 

"  146. — Inspiration  did  not  destroy  the  conscious 
self-control  of  the  Sacred  Writers,     . 

"  147. — The  two  elements — the  divine  and  the  hu- 
man— are  so  combined  as  to  produce  one 
indivisible  result, 

"      148. — The  union  of  the  two  elements  inexplicable, 

"  149. — Analogies  illustrating  the  union  of  the  di- 
vine and  the  human  elements  in  Scripture, 


252-253 


253-254 


254 
254-255 

255-257 


SECOND    QUESTION. 

Did  Inspiration  exclude  Occasionality 

from  the  Sacred  Writings? 


CJiaptcr  First. 
Par.  1 50. — General  Facts, 
"      151. — Special  Facts, 


-Facts. 


CJiaptcr  Second. 
A.  Elucidations  and  Consequences. 
Par.  152. — Intention  and  Method  of  Revelation,  . 


258-259 
259-261 


261-263 


xvi  Contents. 

B.  Hermeneutical  Consequences. 
Par.  153. — Relative  Character  of  Certain  Portions  of 

the  Bible, 264 

"      154- — Necessary  reunion  of  the  different  Biblical 

elements, 264-266 

THIRD  QUESTION. 
Does  Inspiration  Exclude  all  Accommodation? 

Chapter  First. 
STATE  OF  THE  QUESTION. 
Par.  155. — Distinction.     Definition        ....     266-268 

Chapter  Second. 

Necessity  of  Accommodation. 

Par.  156. — General  Necessity, 268-269 

"      157. — Special  Necessity, 269-270 

Chapter  Third. 
FACTS    OF    SCRIPTURE. 
Par.  158. — General  Statement, 271 

A.   Accommodation  Pertaining  to  the  Gen- 
eral Plan  of  Revelation. 
Par.  159. — Accommodations  of  Form,  .        .        .        .     271-272 
"      160. — Accommodation  of  Matter — Old  Testament,     272-273 
"      161. — Same  Continued — New  Testament,      .         .     273-275 
"      162. — Accommodations  in  the  Discourses  of  Jesus 

Christ,  and  on  the  part  of  His  Apostles,  .     275-276 
"      163. — Concluding  Remarks, 276-278 

Index  of  Scripture  Passages, 279 


*b 


INTRODUCTIO  N  ? 


SECTION  FIRST. 
NATURE  OF  HERMENEUTICS. 

§  I.   RELATION  OF  HERMENEUTICS  TO   EXEGETICAL 
THEOLOGY. 

The  object  of  Exegetical  Theology  is  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Holy  Scriptures ;  and  it  attains  this  object 
by  four  distinct,  yet  coherent  and  successive  operations. 

(a).  The  Christian  divine,  called  to  expound  and  in- 
terpret the  Word  of  God,  ought  first  to  explain  the 
history,  the  circumstances,  and  the  form  of  the  Bible. 
This  is  the  special  object  of  Introduction,  or  Isagogics. 

(b).  He  must,  in  the  second  place,  determine,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  the  true  and  original  text ;  and  endeavor  to 
disengage  it  from  the  numerous  variations  with  which 
eighteen  centuries  of  citations  and  transcriptions  have 
encumbered  it.  This  is  the  object  of  the  Criticism  of 
the  Text. 

(c).  Before  attempting  the  explanation  of  the  phrases 
and  ideas  of  the  Bible,  a  third  task,  and  the  most  im- 
portant of  all,  is  necessary.  The  theologian  should 
understand  the  principles,  according  to  which  they  must 
be  explained.  The  exposition  of  these  principles  re- 
ceives the  name  of  Hcrmcncutics. 

(d).  After  these  three  successive  processes  have  been 
finished,  the  Biblical  interpreter  enters  upon  his  work. 


Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


He  reads,  he  analyzes,  he  develops,  he  comments  on  the 
Holy  Word,  line  after  line.  He  no  longer  constructs  a 
science :  he  practices  an  art  —  Exegetics :  he  accom- 
plishes a  task — Exegesis. 

Hermeneutics  comes  from  the  Greek,  tf  epjx^vevriHTf 
sub.  rkx.vV-  'EpfjirfvEVTixri  is  derived  from  the  verb 
ipjAr/vEveiv,  to  interpret,  to  put  into  words,  to  give  ut- 
terance to,  to  explain,  to  make  clear. 

Hermefieut,  Greek,  epjuyvevT^,  is  an  interpreter,  or 
one  who  instructs  others  in  Hermeneutics.  Hermeneuti- 
cal  (hermeneutical  standpoint,  hermeneutical  laws), 
Greek  ip^vevtiKo?,  signifies  belonging  to,  or  suited  to 
interpretation,  or  explanation.  cEppu]vsia  is  the  expres- 
sion of  the  thoughts  by  means  of  words  ;  explanation, 
interpretation. 

Hermeneutics  is  properly  the  art  of  to  s'p^vevsiv,  or 
of  i]  £  Persia;  but  the  word  is  now  generally  used  to 
indicate  the  theory  of  that  art,  or  the  doctrine  of  what 
is  to  be  observed  in  to  ep^vsveiv. 

Exegesis,  Greek  e&jyijffis,  derived  from  e^jryEiffdai,  to 
lead,  to  go  first,  to  shozv  the  way,  to  point  out,  to  expound,  to 
narrate,  to  describe,  is  used  in  the  sense  of  exposition,  ex- 
planation. Exegete,  Greek  E^y^y^rlji,  is  one  skilled  in 
Exegesis.  At  Athens  e^rjy?}tai  were  those  who  had  to 
observe  signs  and  portents,  and  give  instruction  in  the 
sacred  rites.  Exegetical,  Greek  £'£??y?/Tiu6?,  signifies  per- 
taining to  exegesis.  (See  Doedes'  Manual  of  Herme- 
neutics.    Edinburgh  :  T.  &  T.  Clark,  1867,  pp.  1-4). 


[Note.  Isagogics  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word  eloayuKindq, 
pertaining  to  uaayuyq  (a  leading  in,  or  introduction),  which  comes 
from  the  verb  eladyeiv,  to  lead  in,  to  introduce.  We  use  the  cor- 
responding term,  Introduction,  derived  from  the  Latin,  Introduc- 
tio,  derived  from  introduco,  to  bring  or  lead  in,  or  into.] 


Nature  of  Hermeneutics. 


§  2.   DEFINITION   OF   HERMENEUTICS   AND   DIS- 
TINCTIONS. 

Hermeneutics,  as  already  intimated,  is  the  science 
which  teaches  the  principles  of  interpretation.  Biblical 
Hermeneutics,  in  particular,  is  the  science  which  deter- 
mines the  principles  of  the  interpretation  of  the  Holy- 
Scriptures. 

This  definition  is  vague  and  indefinite.  We  must,  in 
order  to  make  ourselves  understood,  add  two  classes  of 
distinctions,  by  separating,  in  the  first  place,  Hermeneu- 
tics proper  from  all  that  has  been  falsely  classed  under 
its  name ;  and  by  indicating,  in  the  next  place,  the 
methodical  and  scientific  elements  of  Hermeneutics 
properly  so  called.  To  the  latter  we  restrict  ourselves 
in  the  present  treatise. 

We  first  distinguish  Hermeneutics  from  all  that  has 
been  falsely  classed  under  its  name. 

Some  have  confounded  it  with  Isagogics.  This  mis- 
take was  made  before  any  one  had  produced  a  plain 
statement  of  the  different  elements  of  Exegetical  Theol- 
ogy. Those  theologians,  who  had  no  idea  of  the  posi- 
tion which  method  and  logic  should  occupy  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  were  disposed  to  give 
the  name  of  Hermeneutics  to  those  works,  in  which  facts 
were  everything,  and  in  which  methods  had  no  place. 
From  these  facts  they  deduced  rules,  or  canons,  but  no 
principles.  Certain  preconceived  doctrinal  views,  the 
authority  of  Confessions  of  Faith,  and  traditions,  ex- 
cluded all  independent  examination,  and  consequently 
all  Hermeneutics  proper. 

The  Roman  Catholic  divines,  with  some  exceptions, 
have  made  the  same  mistake,  and  from  a  similar  cause. 
The  authority  of  the  Church  does  not  allow  among  them 
any  field  for  the  science  of  interpretation.     Their  inter- 


Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


pretations  are  given  officially,  and  there  is  nothing  left 
for  them  but  to  study  the  facts,  to  admit  those  which 
confirm  the  doctrines  of  their  Church,  and  to  conceal  or 
attack  those  which  are  opposed  to  those  doctrines. 

But  those  who  recognize  the  right  and  duty  of  exami- 
nation make  of  Hermeneutics  a  special  science  very  dif- 
ferent from  Isagogics. 

Still  further,  we  distinguish  Hermeneutics  from  Exe- 
gesis. 

Exegesis  is  the  practice  of  an  art :  Hermeneutics  is 
the  science  that  governs  that  art.  The  practice  of  an 
art,  it  is  true,  has  need  of  some  rules,  which  have  been 
classed  under  the  name  of  Exegetics.  There  is  no 
science  in  these  rules :  they  are  a  simple  indication  of 
precautions  and  methods.  Exegetics  may,  strictly  speak- 
ing, be  considered  as  an  appendage  to  Hermeneutics; 
but  it  has  neither  the  importance,  nor  the  utility,  nor 
the  unity,  nor  the  depth  of  the  latter,  and  ought  to  be 
regarded  as  the  result,  or  end  aimed  at. 

§  3.   DISTINCTIONS   CONTINUED. 

We  distinguish,  in  the  second  place,  that  which,  in  the 
domain  of  Hermeneutics,  is  methodical,  scientific,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  essential,  from  that  which  is  not. 

To  that  part  which  is  methodical  and  scientific,  we 
give  the  name  of  Formal  Hermeneutics ;  that  which  is 
not,  we  denominate  Material  Hermeneutics* 

*  Formal  (Prof.  Cellerier  uses  the  term  "  Real  ")  is  that  which 
lies  within  the  jurisdiction  of  Logic,  and  which  Logic  guaran- 
tees ;  Material  is  that  which  lies  without  the  domain  of  Logic, 
and  for  which  Logic  is  not  responsible.  All  that  \s>  formal  is 
true  as  consciously  necessitated  by  the  laws  of  thought ;  all  that 
is  material  is  true,  not  as  necessitated  by  the  laws  of  thought, 
but  as  legitimated  by  the  conditions  and  probabilities  discover- 
able in  the  objects  about  which  we  chance  to  think. — Sir  Wil- 
liam Hamilton 's  Logic,  pp.  539,  541. 


Nature  of  Hermeneutics. 


Under  Material  Hermeneutics,  we  class  those  attempts 
which  have  been  made  in  treatises  upon  Hermeneutics 
to  formulate,  in  an  absolute  manner,  certain  general  dog- 
matic, historic,  and  aesthetic  results  of  the  Holy  Script- 
ures. These  attempts,  more  ambitious  than  happy, 
seek  now  by  analysis,  now  by  synthesis,  now  by  both 
combined  ;  now  in  general,  now  in  particular  and  in  de- 
tail ;  now  by  a  priori  principles,  now  by  canons  deduced 
from  facts ;  to  determine  the  nature  and  value  of  the 
Bible  histories,  of  its  miracles,  of  its  doctrines,  of  its 
poetry,  and  of  its  discourses. 

Material  Hermeneutics,  instead  of  forming  a  science, 
consists  chiefly  of  scattered  attempts,  in  which  authors 
do  not  define  sufficiently  the  object  of  Hermeneutics 
and  state  its  results. 

Here  we  dismiss  the  subject  of  Material  Hermeneutics, 
because  it  does  not  belong  to  the  science — at  least  to 
the  elementary  and  methodical  science  necessary  to  every 
theologian  intrusted  with  the  duty  of  expounding  the 
Scriptures. 

Formal  Hermeneutics  seeks  methodically,  not  for 
results,  but  for  the  rules  and  principles  by  means  of 
which  one  may  find  the  results.  It  searches  for,  points 
out,  and  expounds  the  methods  by  means  of  which  the  in- 
terpreter may  find  in  the  Bible  the  truth  which  it  contains. 

But  here  arise  new  distinctions,  marked  with  the  con- 
fusion that  has  reigned  in  the  science.  Some  have  dis- 
tinguished General  from  Special  Hermeneutics. 

General  Hermeneutics  is  that  which  embraces  the 
entire  science,  which  lays  the  foundations  of  the  true 
method  of  interpretation,  and  which,  setting  out  from 
the  very  nature  of  the  act  of  interpreting,  establishes 
the  general  principles  of  all  interpretation  of  whatever 
kind,  and  proceeds  thence  to  the  interpretation  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures. 


Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


Special  Hermeneutics  investigates  the  rules  applicable 
to  the  different  characters  of  the  particular  books  of  the 
Sacred  Writings,  as  historical,  or  poetical,  or  didactic. 
It  is  a  practical,  and,  we  might  say,  an  empirical  science, 
whereas  the  former  is  methodical  and  philosophical.  It 
seeks  for  rules  and  solutions ;  the  former,  for  principles 
and  methods.  It  is  nearly  allied  to  Material  Hermeneu- 
tics ;  the  former,  to  Formal  Hermeneutics. 

We  think  that  General  Hermeneutics  is  more  im- 
portant than  Special  to  Theology,  truth,  and  faith.  It 
is  of  the  former  alone  that  we  will  treat,  seeking,  at  the 
same  time,  to  illustrate  it  constantly,  by  examples  and 
analyses  of  particulars,  which  shall  occupy  the  place, 
and,  to  a  certain  extent,  partake  of  the  character,  of 
Special  Hermeneutics. 

§  4.   IMPORTANCE   OF   HERMENEUTICS. 

Perhaps  no  branch  of  theological  science  exerts  an  in- 
fluence so  great  and  fruitful  as  Formal-General  Herme- 
neutics, which  furnishes  to  the  theologian  his  methods  of 
interpretation.  It  decides,  to  a  certain  degree,  the  sys- 
tems of  dogmatics,  instruction  in  religion,  the  faith  of 
the  people,  and  often  the  peace  of  the  Church. 

One  may  see,  by  the  place  which  it  occupies  in  Exe- 
getical  Theology,  the  high  position  which  it  holds.  It 
aspires  to  nothing  less  than  to  be  the  key  of  the  Sacred 
Books,  unlocking  all  the  science  and  learning  founded 
upon  them.  Without  it,  Dogmatics  must  be  uncertain ; 
and  consequently  our  doctrinal  views  must  rest  upon  an 
unstable  foundation. 

It  goes  still  further.  It  applies  logic  to  the  study  of 
the  sacred  volume.  It  demands  as  auxiliaries,  besides 
learning  and  criticism,  reason  and  method,  philosophy, 
pyschology,  and  all  the   means  which  God  has  given  to 


Nature  of  Hermeneutics. 


men  to  discover  the  truth.  It  is  in  that  way  unceasingly 
occupied  in  bringing  into  harmony  reason  and  revelation, 
in  illustrating  the  one  by  the  other,  and  in  making  mani- 
fest between  them  that  accord  which  is  one  of  the 
grand  proofs  of  the  divine  perfection  and  heavenly  origin 
of  our  faith.  Well  directed,  it  enables  us  to  contem- 
plate the  Holy  Scriptures  in  all  their  native  purity,  in  all 
their  divine  depth,  in  their  intimate  relations  to  the  per- 
fections of  God  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  heart  of 
man  on  the  other.  In  other  words,  it  exhibits  them  in 
all  their  beauty,  at  once  human  and  divine.  It  thus  re- 
animates the  faith,  and  founds  it  solidly  upon  truth  and 
reason.  It  prevents,  as  far  as  possible,  false  interpreta- 
tions and  false  systems,  which  are  so  frequently  causes 
of  unbelief. 

If  ever  the  Church  of  Christ  be  united  in  the  bond  of 
peace  by  love ;  if  she  ever  arrive  at  the  unity  of  the 
faith ;  or,  rather,  if  she  ever  approach  this  ideal  goal — 
impossible  perhaps  to  be  attained  here  below — it  will  be 
by  an  interpretation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  at  once  de- 
vout, experimental,  intelligent,  and  clear ;  which  is,  in 
short,  by  a  true  and  complete  science  of  Hermeneutics. 


Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


SECTION  SECOND. 

HISTORY  OF  HERMENEUTICAL  PRINCIPLES. 

§  5.  GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. — THE  FIRST  PERIOD.— 
FROM  THE  TIME  OF  THE  APOSTLES  UNTIL  THE 
TIME  OF  ORIGEN. — FIRST  AND  SECOND  CENT- 
URIES. 

Hermeneutics  is  essentially  a  science  of  principles. 
Before  entering  upon  the  analysis,  which  shall  enable  us 
to  determine  the  principles  upon  which  the  science  is  to 
be  constructed,  we  will  indicate  those  upon  which  the- 
ologians have,  in  different  ages,  attempted  to  found  it. 
We  are  not  in  a  condition,  at  this  late  date,  to  appreciate 
these  attempts  in  detail,  nevertheless  it  will  not  be  with- 
out utility  to  pass  them  in  review.  This  historical  pict- 
ure will  enable  us  to  recognize  the  ground  upon  which 
the  edifice  of  the  science  should  be  erected — the  ground 
which  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  clear  from  rubbish 
before  it  can  be  built  upon. 

For  the  purpose  of  observing  order,  in  this  rapid 
sketch,  we  will  divide  it  into  eras,  although  they  may  be 
vague  and  merely  approximative. 

The  first  era  comprehends  the  first  two  centuries.  It 
commences  with  the  Christian  Church  and  ends  before 
Origen. 

During  this  era  Hermeneutics  did  not  exist,  and  could 
not  exist.  The  Church  was  too  much  occupied  with 
practice,  too  little  instructed  by  meditation  and  experi- 
ence, too  much  harassed,  at  times,  by  persecutions,  and 
absorbed  in  polemics,  to  think  of  discovering  for  itself 


History  of  Hermeneutical  Principles.         g 

the  scientific  principles  of  interpretation.  The  Church 
of  this  era  was,  moreover,  so  near  to  the  time  of  the 
preaching  of  the  Apostles  and  of  the  publication  of  their 
writings,  that  these  were  sufficiently  perspicuous  and 
fully  explained  by  the  oral  traditions  so  carefully  sought 
for  at  that  time.  One  has  need  of  principles  and  meth- 
ods to  assure  himself  of  the  sense  of  a  book  only  when 
that  sense  is  not  evident.  An  interpreter  is  necessary 
only  for  that  which  is  obscure. 


§  6.  SECOND  PERIOD.  —  FATHERS  OF  THE  CHURCH 
(FROM  ORIGEN  TO  THE  MIDDLE  AGES,  i.  e.,  THE 
THIRD,   FOURTH,   AND   FIFTH   CENTURIES). 

During  this  period  a  scientific  spirit   sprang  up  and 
developed  itself ;  but  the  science  of  Hermeneutics  had 
yet  no  existence.     Certain  principles  of  interpretation\ 
are  discerned  in  the  writings  of  the  Fathers ;  but  these 
principles  are  not  formulated.  y 

The  more  prominent  are  the  following : 

(a).  The  divinity  of  the  Bible.  The  Bible  is  divine?^ 
Therefore,  it  can  contain  nothing  unworthy  of  God — in  f 
other  words,  nothing  false,  absurd,  or  immoral.  This 
fundamental  principle  is  admitted  by  every  true  Chris- 
tian as  the  basis  of  his  Hermeneutics ;  but  it  has,  never- 
theless, need  of  being  illustrated  and  limited.  It  has 
the  logical  inconvenience  of  being  a  priori,  and  of  pre- 
scribing, previous  to  examination,  what  it  ought  to  de- 
duce as  the  result  of  inquiry. 

(b).  Multiple  sense  of  the  Bible.  This  bold  principle 
had  its  origin  in  the  logic  and  imagination  of  the  East, 
especially  of  the  School  of  Alexandria.  The  Palestinian 
Jews  brought  out  of  Chaldea  the  remains  of  the  ancient 
Oriental-Greek  philosophy,  whose  conflict  with  their  own 
religion  gave  rise  to  the  system  of  allegorizing  among 


io  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

them.  Moreover,  the  Platonic  philosophy,  so  prevalent 
in  Egypt,  considerably  affected  the  interpretation  adopted 
by  the  Alexandrine  Jews.  It  led  them  comparatively 
to  disregard  the  literal  sense,  and  to  seek  after  a  hidden 
one  which  would  coincide  with  their  philosophical  ideas. 
This,  however,  can  not  be  truly  regarded  as  the  cause  of 
such  a  method  of  exposition.  The  origin  of  allegorizing 
is  to  be  traced  to  a  pious  feeling  seeking  to  introduce 
into  the  Scriptures  more  than  sound  judgment  sanctions, 
or  the  Bible  itself  approves. 

Finding  in  the  New  Testament  an  appearance  of  sup- 
port, the  early  Church  Fathers,  with  a  true  piety  united 
to  an  exalted  imagination,  accepted  the  allegorical 
method  of  interpretation  with  enthusiasm.  They  dis- 
tinguished and  arranged  the  multiple  sense  as  something 
firmly  established.  Confounding  the  uses  which  may  be 
made  of  a  passage  of  Scripture  with  its  meaning,  they 
adopted  a  variety  of  senses,  which  they  classed  under 
the  following  categories,  viz. :  grammatical,  moral,  ana- 
gogical  or  mystical,  and  allegorical.  The  meaning  of 
these  senses  becomes  clear  from  the  well-known  couplet : 

"  Litera  gesta  docet,  quid  credas  allegoria, 
Moralis  quid  agas,  quo  tendas  anagogia." 

The  principle  of  a  multiple  sense  is  opposed,  as  we 
shall  see  in  the  sequel,  to  logic  and  to  facts.  It  is  dan- 
gerous in  that  it  introduces  into  the  Holy  Scriptures  an 
element  of  confusion  and  of  error,  and  arbitrary  human 
opinions  into  our  belief.  It  has  little  respect  for  the 
Scriptures,  inasmuch  as  it  delivers  them  over  to  the  im- 
agination and  caprice  of  the  interpreter,  that  is,  to  the 
fancies  and  whims,  which  they  ought  to  control. 

(c).  Mystic  force  of  tlic  Holy  Scriptures.  Some  attrib- 
uted to  the  Bible,  not  only  to  its  ideas,  but  also  to  the 
book  itself,  an  inherent  and  secret  virtue,  which  had  the 


History  of  Hermcnctitical  Principles.        1 1 

power  of  strengthening,  edifying,  and  consoling  those 
who  read  it,  although  they  might  incorrectly  understand 
the  sense,  or  be  entirely  mistaken  about  it.  This  was  a 
pious,  but  dangerous  superstition.  It  deified  the  words, 
rendered  the  true  sense  superfluous,  truth  unworthy  of 
research,  and  set  aside  the  divine  thought.  As  a  her- 
meneutical  principle,  it  is  not  worthy  of  being  debated. 

This  grave  error,  however,  conceals  a  truth,  which  we 
will  do  well  to  recognize.  It  is  that  the  believer,  who 
meditates  upon  the  Bible,  with  pious  dispositions,  is 
edified  by  the  very  efforts  which  he  makes  to  compre- 
hend it.  These  efforts  place  him  in  the  presence  of  God, 
reanimate  whatever  pious  and  elevated  sentiments  he 
may  possess,  recall  to  him  what  he  already  knows  of  the 
Bible,  the  lessons  which  he  has  heard  deduced  from  it, 
the  holy  emotions  which  it  has  excited  in  his  heart ;  and 
in  this  way,  should  he  even  be  mistaken  in  regard  to  the 
sense  which  he  assigns  to  its  sacred  pages,  he  leaves  his 
meditations  with  increased  piety,  and  consequently  a 
better  Christian.  In  such  a  case  his  errors  of  interpre- 
tation can  never  be  very  serious.  He  interprets  the 
Bible  by  the  Bible  and  by  its  general  analogy.  There 
is,  therefore,  in  this  case  no  mystic  force,  but  an  influ- 
ence of  the  Bible  very  happy  and  very  real. 

These  three  principles,  which  we  have  now  explained, 
were  universally  admitted  in  this  era.  The  immense 
influence  of  Origen's  writings  introduced  them  into 
general  use. 

But  a  century  after  him  other  principles  began  to  be 
added  to  them.  This  was  due  to  a  man,  whose  imagina- 
tion, sensibility,  eloquence,  and  piety  have  seldom  been 
equalled  in  the  Church.  St.  Augustine  introduced,  not 
into  the  science  of  Hermencutics  (since  that  did  not  yet 
exist),  but  into  the  practice  of  interpretation,  three  new 
elements,  viz. :    The  qualifications  necessary  to  the  inter- 


12  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

prefer,  the  analogy  of  faith,  and  the  authority  of  tradi- 
tion. These  three  principles  gained  ascendency  only  by 
slow  degrees,  and  consequently  we  must  refer  to  other 
eras  to  notice  their  development. 

§   7.    THIRD   PERIOD.— THE   MIDDLE   AGES. 

This  era  extends  from  the  sixth  to  the  fifteenth 
century.  During  this  period  Hermeneutics  still  remain- 
ed without  the  shape  of  a  science ;  but  all  the  principles 
of  the  preceding  era  were  put  in  practice.  They  were, 
however,  subject  to  tradition,  and  employed  in  its  serv- 
ice.    This  is  the  period  of  the  reign  of  authority. 

The  principle  of  authority,  taken  in  an  absolute  sense, 
is  in  opposition  to  logic  and  all  philosophy ;  for  it  sup- 
poses all  progress  impossible,  and,  consequently,  all 
examination  useless.  Nevertheless,  even  in  the  middle 
ages,  progress,  or  at  least  a  condition  of  change,  existed  ; 
and  it  was  very  necessary  to  discover  some  means  by 
which  to  render  it  legitimate.  The  system  of  pontifical 
authority  developed  itself ;  and  how  was  this  development 
to  be  reconciled  with  the  ancient  authority  of  the  early 
traditions?  To  effect  the  reconciliation,  they  assumed 
an  inspiration  constantly  renewed  in  the  Popes  and  the 
Councils ;  and  consequently  a  tradition  ever  increasing, 
and  maintained  without  losing  anything  of  its  authority 
— an  authority  infallible  and,  at  the  same  time,  progress- 
ive. This  was  a  means,  if  not  logical,  at  least  ingeni- 
ous,  of  reconciling  contrary  principles,  which  the  Church 
wished  equally  to  preserve,  while  it  left  the  respect  due 
to  the  Scriptures  to  exist  only  in  appearance. 

What  became  of  the  Holy  Bible  under  the  dominion 
of  such  a  system  ?  It  became  a  book  of  no  value,  per- 
verted at  will  to  suit  the  passions  and  interests  of  the 
chiefs  of  the  corrupted  Church.     It  was  a  treasure  un- 


History  of  Hermeneutical  Principles.       13 

known,  forgotten,  buried.  The  revelation  of  Jesus 
Christ  was  replaced  by  a  new  revelation,  which  pre- 
sumptuously assumed  its  name ;  by  a  revelation  with- 
out miracles,  and  without  proofs,  which  had  the  prom- 
ises neither  of  this  life,  nor  of  that  which  is  to  come. 

Nevertheless,  even  in  this  monstrous  error,  there  was 
a  principle  of  truth. 

We  must  distinguish  between  the  two  elements  of  the 
system  :  the  authority  of  tradition,  and  the  continued  in- 
spiration of  the  leaders  of  the  Church. 

This  last  element  was  only  an  invention  to  subserve 
the  interests  of  scheming  men.  It  contains  no  principle 
of  Hermeneutics,  of  logic,  or  of  truth. 

It  is  not  so  with  the  principle  of  authority.  After  it 
has  been  deprived  of  its  despotic  and  absolute  character, 
and  has  assumed  that  of  respect  for  experience  and 
antiquity,  it  has  a  right,  as  well  as  the  others,  to  a  place 
among  the  aids,  which  the  interpreter  ought  not  to  neg- 
lect. In  this  sense,  to  have  recourse  to  the  authority  of 
the  ancients,  is  to  consult  men  who  have  examined  the 
Bible  before  us  in  a  different  and  often  more  favorable 
position.  It  is  to  enrich  ourselves  with  the  knowledge 
of  all  times  and  of  all  places. 

It  is  necessary  to  observe  that  all  the  principles  passed 
in  review  have  a  philosophic  and  true  element.  They 
become  dangerous  only  when  isolated  from  others  and 
invested  with  an  absolute  value. 

§   8.   FOURTH   PERIOD. — THE   REFORMATION. 

We  must  include  in  this  era  those  distinguished 
exegetes  who  preceded  a  little  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. Influenced  by  the  revival  of  learning  and  the 
intellectual  movement  of  the  age,  they  had  much  in 
common  with  the  spirit  of  the  new  era ;  and  though 


14  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

they  did  not  yet  employ  precisely  the  principles  of  inter- 
pretation, which  were  soon  to  prevail,  they  nevertheless 
presented  them,  and  thus  contributed  to  bring  them  in- 
to use. 

The  Reformation  was  destined  to  exercise,  and  did 
exercise,  an  immense  influence  upon  Hermeneutics. 

This  influence  had  a  twofold  character,  general  and 
intellectual,  special  and  biblical. 

The  Reformation  was  a  revolt  and  a  victory  of  the 
human  intelligence,  and  of  the  spirit  of  examination.  It 
was  impossible  that  Hermeneutics  should  not  derive 
from  this  event  more  life,  more  independence,  and 
more  originality.  It  is  only  in  this  era,  indeed,  that  the 
true  history  of  Hermeneutics  commences — the  history  of 
its  free  and  spontaneous  development. 

It  is  necessary,  however,  to  observe  that  the  very 
nature  of  the  examination  which  produced  the  Reforma- 
tion, that  of  the  struggle  which  succeeded  it,  and  that 
of  the  tendencies  and  religious  wants  which  arose  from 
it,  continue  to  give  to  hermeneutical  researches  a  char- 
acter much  more  intellectual  than  aesthetic  and  subject- 
ive. Hermeneutics  was  often  too  dry  and  dialectic.  It 
forgot,  for  a  long  time,  the  lively,  emotional,  and  poet- 
ical character  so  strongly  impressed  upon  the  Bible,  or 
made  at  least  very  little  account  of  it.  It  remained,  al- 
most until  the  present  day,  without  appreciating  the 
extent  of  the  influence  which  the  noble  and  prolific 
emotional  and  aesthetic  elements  ought  to  exert  upon 
Biblical  interpretation. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Reformation  was  made  in  the 
name  of  the  Bible  and  directed  to  it  the  attention,  the 
respect,  and  the  faith  of  the  Church.  It  was  a  necessary 
consequence,  therefore,  that  this  great  event  should  in- 
crease the  use  and  importance  of  Biblical  Hermeneutics, 
and,  in  the  course  of  time,  bring  it  into  accord  with  the 


History  of  Hermeneutical  Principles.       15 

sacred  text.  It  immediately  impaired  the  authority  of 
those  principles  which  had  diminished  that  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  It  established  and  developed  principles  en- 
tirely opposed  to  those  which  had  hitherto  obtained. 
The  authority  of  tradition  was  annihilated,  and  the 
multiple  senses  were  diminished.  If  any  typical  and 
allegorical  interpretations  were  still  maintained,  it  was 
because  they  had,  or  appeared  to  have,  their  foundation 
in  the  Bible  itself.  Some  new  principles,  supported  by 
the  authority  of  the  Bible,  replaced  the  old  ones ;  or  at 
least  so  far  that  the  latter  were  neglected  and  placed  in 
a  second  rank.  These  new  principles  were  developed 
by  the  aid  of  the  Reformation,  so  successfully  as  to  pre- 
vail over  all  others.     They  are  the  following : 

(a).  Thcopncusty,  or  inspiration  taken  in  its  absolute 
sense.  The  successors  of  the  reformers,  rather  than  the 
reformers  themselves,  understood  it  in  a  much  stricter 
sense  than  the  first  centuries  of  the  Church  had  used  it. 
The  doctrine  of  inspiration  is  the  basis  of  Protestantism, 
but  only  so  far  as  it  is  supported  by  the  Bible,  and  illus- 
trated and  limited  by  Biblical  facts.  The  principle  of  a 
literal  theopneusty  was  generally  admitted  in  theory  by 
the  great  exegetes  of  the  Reformation,  but  often  con- 
tradicted by  them  in  practice. 

But  "within  the  pale  of  the  Protestant  Church  there 
soon  emerged  a  difference  of  opinion,  which  has  sub- 
sisted with  growing  divergence  ever  since.  The  one 
principle  of  the  singular  and  supreme  authority  of 
Scripture  found  its  natural  expression  in  the  views  of 
Calvin  and  his  followers  in  the  Reformed  Churches,  with 
respect  to  inspiration.  They  approved  themselves  heirs 
to  the  faith  of  Augustine  and  the  early  Church  in  the 
complete  infallibility  of  the  Bible ;  while  as  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  doctrine  was  held,  and  the  explanation 
of  it  was  to  be  given,  their  definite  and  systematic  views 


1 6  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

of  all  divine  truth  led  them  to  give  it  a  more  dogmatic 
shape  and  formal  expression  than  it  had  received  before. 
In  the  writings  of  Calvin  himself  there  is  the  fullest 
recognition  of  the  human  element  in  the  sacred  volume, 
along  with  an  unequivocal  assertion  of  that  divine  con- 
trol over  the  instrumentality  employed  in  composing  it, 
which  secures  it  against  error.  But  there  is  also  a  wise 
abstinence  from  speculative  views  as  to  the  theory  of 
inspiration,  and  no  presumptuous  attempts  in  the  way 
of  defining  the  manner  in  which  the  supernatural  result 
of  an  infallible  text  was  brought  about. 

"  The  same  abstinence  from  hypothesis  in  explaining 
the  doctrine  was  not  observed  by  some  of  Calvin's  fol- 
lowers in  the  subsequent  discussions  that  arose  concern- 
ing it ;  and  in  their  teaching  we  observe  a  tendency  to 
make  the  divine  element  in  inspiration  supersede  the 
human,  and  to  reduce  the  inspired  man,  when  under  the 
influence  of  the  Spirit,  to  the  level  of  an  unconscious 
and  unintelligent  instrument.  The  language  of  the 
Formula  Consensus  Helvetica  in  1675,  and  of  some  the- 
ologians about  the  same  period  and  afterwards,  who 
maintained  the  cause  of  Scripture  inspiration,  can  hardly 
be  accepted  in  consistency  with  the  fact  of  the  complete 
freedom  and  individuality,  in  the  exercise  of  their  proper 
powers,  of  the  inspired  writers.  And  yet  it  is  difficult 
to  believe  that  the  purely  mechanical  hypothesis  of  an 
entire  suspension  of  will  and  intellect  and  consciousness 
in  the  prophet,  so  much  akin  to  the  Montanist  heresy  in 
the  early  Church,  was  ever  seriously  entertained  by 
many  of  those  divines  whose  language  might  seem  con- 
sequentially to  lead  to  it.  On  the  contrary,  in  the  case 
of  some  at  least,  there  is  distinct  evidence  that,  what- 
ever their  theory  might  logically  imply,  they  truly  held 
by  the  idea  of  the  conscious  individuality  and  intelligent 


History  of  Hermeneutical  Principles.       1 7 

co-operation  of  the  inspired  man  under  the  power  of 
God's  Spirit."* 

{b).  The  analogy  of  faith,  which  regulates  the  inter- 
pretation of  each  passage  in  conformity  with  the  whole 
tenor  of  revealed  truth.  This  principle,  according  as  it 
is  explained  and  applied,  is  a  fruitful  source  of  error,  or 
of  truth.  It  is  very  much  like  reposing  on  a  treacherous 
wheel,  which  is  ready  to  run  either  way.  Nevertheless 
it  merits  all  confidence,  so  long  as  we  take  for  the  rule 
of  faith  the  uniform  teaching  of  Scripture.  But  if,  on 
the  contrary,  we  take  the  faith  of  the  Church  or  official 
doctrinal  symbols  for  the  rule  of  faith,  and  apply  it  in 
theory,  or  in  fact,  to  the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures, 
we  are  guilty  of  the  fallacies  of  petitio  principii  and  of 
reasoning  in  a  circle.  This  would  be  the  death  of  all 
examination,  and  of  all  Hermeneutics,  and  of  all  exe- 
gesis.    Undisguised  Popery  could  not  be  worse. 

(e).  The  comparative  study  of  the  Scriptures.  The 
Reformation,  while  rendering  Hermeneutics  more  intel- 
lectual, more  logical,  and  more  Biblical,  enabled  inter- 
preters to  derive  more  benefit,  than  their  predecessors 
had  done,  from  the  Bible  itself,  by  the  method  of  com- 
paring its  different  portions.  In  this  way  originated, 
among  the  Protestant  theologians,  the  great  hermeneu- 
tical use  of  parallel  passages  and  of  the  context.  We 
shall  speak  at  length,  in  the  sequel,  of  these  two  aids  to 
interpretation,  and  will,  therefore,  not  detain  ourselves 
longer  here.  Suffice  it  to  remark  that  this  new  tend- 
ency, to  compare  Scripture  with  Scripture,  did  more 
than  anything  else  to  prepare  a  conscientious  and  logi- 
cal exegesis,  and  began  the  work  of  placing  Hermeneu- 
tics upon  its  true  foundation.     To  this  era  the  science 


*  Bannerman  on  Inspiration.     Edinburgh  :   T.  &   T.   Clark, 
1865.     pp.  135,  136. 


Biblical  Hcrmaicutics. 


really  owes  its  birth.  Nevertheless  it  was  only  in  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  that  it  appeared 
in  a  more  distinct  manner  upon  the  horizon  of  theology, 
and  that  it  was  reduced  to  a  system,  though  still  rude 
and  heterogeneous. 

Since  the  Reformation  and  the  Council  of  Trent,  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  slave  of  authority,  has  no 
Hermeneutics  worthy  of  the  name :  we  must,  therefore, 
seek  for  the  principles  of  the  science  in  the  Protestant 
Churches. 


§  9.   FIFTH   PERIOD. — SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

The  impulse  given  by  the  Reformation  bore  its  fruits. 
New  exegetical  methods  were  adopted  ;  and  new  prin- 
ciples, due  to  the  special  tendencies  of  some  men,  or  of 
some  sects,  were  added  to  the  old  hermeneutical  prin- 
ciples of  perpetual  validity. 

The  Socinians  demanded  that  the  Scriptures  should 
be  interpreted  in  a  rational  sense.  This  principle  has  a 
legitimate  foundation ;  but  it  must  be  received  with 
proper  limitations.  Reason — the  instrument  of  truth, 
a  gift  of  God  of  great  value,  although  feeble  and  fallible 
— reason  has  the  right,  and  it  is  under  obligation,  to  ex- 
amine the  evidences  of  Scripture,  to  accept  it,  and  to  in- 
terpret it.  This  is  not  all :  it  ought,  besides,  to  derive 
nourishment  from  the  Bible.  While  meditating  upon  it, 
it  should  derive  from  it  lessons  for  practice,  assimilate 
its  teachings  to  its  own  substance,  instruct,  develop,  and 
regulate  itself  by  the  devout  and  constant  study  of  its 
sacred  pages.  Between  these  two  sources  of  light — the 
Bible  and  reason  —  there  should  always  be  a  conscien- 
tious and  prudent  action  and  reaction.  The  rights  of 
reason  are  those  of  a  friend  called  in  to  counsel  with  one, 
and  not  those  of  a  sovereign,  who  despotically  chooses, 


History  of  Hermeneutical  Principles.       19 

rejects,  disposes,  and,  if  need  be,  effaces,  or  perverts 
everything  in  the  Holy  Word  that  displeases  him,  or 
surpasses  his  understanding.  To  admit  a  positive  reve- 
lation and  to  reject  things  positively  revealed  is  a  great 
inconsistency. 

The  Socinians  wished  to  subject  revelation  to  reason : 
the  Quakers,  at  the  other  extreme,  made  the  same  mis- 
take in  wishing  to  subject  the  written  Word  to  the 
"Inner  Word,"  that  is,  to  an  individual  revelation.  Here 
we  still  find,  as  always,  a  mingling  of  the  false  with  the 
true. 

Without  doubt,  the  mind  nourished  by  holy  thoughts, 
aided  by  God,  using  its  noblest  faculties,  can,  as  it  were, 
by  a  spontaneous  bound,  raise  itself  to  a  sufficient  height, 
to  grasp,  rapidly  and  without  the  aid  of  analysis,  certain 
truths  of  sentiment  and  of  conscience.  In  hermeneuti- 
cal science  it  is  necessary  to  recognize  this,  which  some 
have  too  often  forgotten.  According  to  them  man 
would  seem  to  be  made  up  entirely  of  intelligence  and 
reason. 

But  if  this  intuition  of  sentiment  has  its  rights,  it  has 
nevertheless  less  right  than  reason  to  exercise  authority 
over  the  Holy  Scriptures.  It  can  not  aspire  to  this 
office  without  subjecting  them  to  the  caprice  of  the  im- 
agination and  the  follies  of  mysticism. 

The  principle  of  the  Quakers  corresponds  so  exactly 
to  that  of  the  Socinians,  that  there  is  only  a  difference 
in  the  nature  of  the  faculties  elevated  to  a  superiority 
over  Scripture.  But  this  difference  produced,  in  the 
two  sects,  consequences  totally  opposite.  In  reality  the 
error  of  the  mystical  sect  was  more  dangerous  to  man, 
to  society,  to  faith,  than  was  the  error  of  the  philosophi- 
cal sect,  at  least  in  theory.  However  grave  the  errors 
of  reason  may  have  been,  those  cf  the  imagination  are 
still  more  deplorable. 


20  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

To  this  era  pertains  another  principle,  which  is  the 
product  neither  of  the  Reformation,  nor  of  the  century, 
but  of  the  eccentric  tendencies  of  an  individual.  If  this 
man  formed  a  sect,  it  was  the  result  of  his  individual  in- 
fluence. It  was  also  the  consequence  and  the  natural 
chastisement  of  the  fault  committed  by  the  reformed 
theologians,  in  preserving  in  their  Hermeneutics  so  many 
of  the  capricious  allegories  of  Origen  and  of  Augustine. 
Cocceius,  a  Hollander,  undertook,  in  his  Hermeneutics, 
to  pull  down  all  the  barriers  that  still  controlled  the  im- 
agination of  interpreters,  to  give  full  liberty  to  their 
audacity,  and,  if  need  be,  to  their  extravagance.  Alle- 
gories and  double  senses  were  not  sufficient  for  him :  he 
freed  them  from  all  rules  and  from  all  limits.  He  de- 
clared legitimate  all  the  senses  which  it  is  possible  to 
give  to  Scripture ;  which  practically  amounts  to  declar- 
ing true  and  divine  all  the  vagaries  of  the  most  fanciful 
interpreters. 

§    IO.    SIXTH     PERIOD.  —  REACTIONS     AND     STRUGGLES 
DURING  THE  FIRST   PART   OF   THE   EIGHTEENTH 

CENTURY. 

The  intellectual  activity,  the  independence,  the  in- 
creasing boldness  of  religious  systems,  the  incomplete, 
illogical,  scholastic,  or  too  purely  intellectual  charac- 
ter of  the  usual  hermeneutical  methods  caused  men  to 
desire  and  frequently  to  attempt  changes.  The  first  half, 
or  rather  the  first  two-thirds  of  the  eighteenth  century 
witnessed  new  efforts  to  constitute  the  science  of  inter- 
pretation. But  these  efforts,  made  in  contrary  directions 
by  the  opposite  schools,  introduced  a  state  of  struggle 
rather  than  of  decided  progress.  They  furnished  to  the 
advancing  science  the  materials  which  it  had  too  much 
neglected  ;    but  still  these  materials  were  not  arranged 


History  of  Hermeneutical  Principles.      21 

scientifically.  They  formed  a  confused  collection  of 
contrary  elements,  from  which  we  are  now  able  to  de- 
rive advantage  in  the  way  of  selection.  But  being,  dur- 
ing this  era,  in  a  state  of  mutual  antagonism,  no  one 
ever  thought  of  attempting  to  combine  them.  Never- 
theless these  materials,  like  all  the  principles  which  we 
have  passed  in  review,  were  in  part  sound  and  useful,  and 
in  part  of  an  opposite  character.  In  respect  to  them, 
as  in  respect  to  everything  else,  it  was  necessary  to 
examine,  to  weigh,  to  select,  and  to  reject. 

In  this  era  we  must  distinguish  three  schools  of  very 
different  principles,  viz :  The  Logical  School,  the  Pietistic 
School,  and  the  Naturalistic  School. 

(a).  The  Logical  School,  the  successor  of  the  Arminians 
and  of  Grotius,  was  especially  represented  by  two  dis- 
tinguished men,  Le  Clerc  and  J.  A.  Turretini,  men  of 
different  mental  characteristics,  both  Genevese  ;  but  the 
former  was  adopted  by  Holland.  Tired  of  Cocceianism 
and  of  imaginary  senses,  this  School  adopted  the  prin- 
ciple that  the  Holy  Scriptures  ought  to  be  explained 
like  other  books,  by  the  aid  of  logic  and  analysis.  It 
combated  successfully  the  double,  mystic,  allegorical, 
and  anagogical  senses.  It  broke  the  despotism  of  the 
analogy  of  faith,  and  made  Cocceianism  succumb  be- 
neath its  blows.  It  thus  enabled  theology  to  make  a 
great  advance  toward  a  sound  and  true  Hermeneutics. 

Nevertheless  it  was  at  fault  in  neglecting  too  much  an 
essential  element.  Too  much  preoccupied  with  the 
logical  succession  of  ideas,  it  paid  too  little  regard  to 
their  aesthetic  development.  The  warmth,  the  sentiment, 
the  emotion  of  the  sacred  writers,  the  appreciation  of 
which  forms  a  key  necessary  to  the  understanding  of 
come  of  their  writings,  continued  to  be  too  much  neg- 
lected, and  consequently  the  problem  of  interpretation 
was  not  yet  solved. 


22  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

(o).  The  Pictistic  School.  The  key,  which  we  have  just 
mentioned  as  too  much  neglected,  was  to  a  certain  de- 
gree employed  by  the  School  of  Spener,  a  worthy  repre- 
sentative of  which  was  the  venerable  Francke.  They 
demanded  two  things  of  the  interpreter  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  both  of  which  are  of  great  importance  in  the 
accomplishment  of  his  task.  The  first,  is  sufficient 
learning ;  and  the  second,  feelings  in  harmony  with 
those  of  the  writer,  whom  he  wished  to  understand  and 
explain.  This  was  the  first  time,  perhaps,  in  exegesis 
that  any  one  proclaimed  clearly  the  evident  necessity  of 
sharing  in  the  emotions  of  an  author,  in  order  to  repro- 
duce them.  It  supposes  the  obligation  of  studying 
him  emotionally,  and  of  taking  into  consideration  some- 
thing else  than  pure  ideas  and  their  logical  connection. 

This  School  has  been  accused  of  mysticism  ;  and  it 
may  not  be  entirely  free  from  the  charge.  "  Spener 
agreed  with  the  mystics  in  this,  that  the  dead  letter 
avails  nothing."  But  he  opposed  quite  as  decidedly  the 
pre-eminence  assigned  to  the  Spirit  without  Scripture. 
Thus  he  said,  in  opposition  to  the  notions  of  the  Quakers : 
"  Our  feelings  are  not  the  norm  of  truth,  but  divine  truth 
is  the  norm  of  our  feelings.  This  rule  of  truth  exists  in 
the  Divine  Word  apart  from  ourselves."* 

(c).  The  Naturalistic  School.  Naturalism,  as  pertain- 
ing to  Hermeneutics,  was  a  dangerous  reaction,  called 
forth  by  the  abuses  of  the  preceding  century.  The 
naturalists,  or  disciples  of  a  purely  natural  religion, 
should  be  distinguished  from  the  rationalists.  The 
rationalist,  properly  so  called,  mutilates  revelation,  sub- 
jects it  to  the  sovereign  sway  of  reason,  and  sees  in  it 
only  a  providential,  though  a  divine  work  ;  nevertheless 


*  Hagenbach's  History  of  Doctrines.     New  York  :  Sheldon  & 
Company.     1868.     Vol.  II.,  p.  246. 


History  of  Hermeneutical  Principles.       23 

he  loves  it,  or  thinks  that  he  loves  it,  and  in  a  certain 
sense  admits  it.  Those  who  are  called  naturalists  in 
Germany  have  gone  farther ;  they  have  shown  them- 
selves the  enemies  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  of  their 
teaching ;  they  have  disguised  their  contents,  denied 
their  value,  and  attacked  them  with  hatred.  The  Ger- 
man naturalists  of  the  eighteenth  century  were  dis- 
tinguished from  the  French  deists  only  by  a  more  scien- 
tific character ;  and  from  the  English  deists  only  by 
their  theological  pretensions.  This  naturalistic  school 
did  not  develop  itself  fully  until  the  second  part  of  this 
century,  although  it  commenced  much  earlier ;  and  at 
the  point  of  view  which  now  occupies  us,  it  ought  to  be 
noticed  in  connection  with  the  views  of  the  English 
deists,  who  made  their  appearance  in  the  literary  world 
before  the  naturalists.  This  infidel  school  has  doubtless 
no  right  to  be  placed  among  those  that  employed  her- 
meneutical methods,  since  to  hate  and  deny  is  not  to 
interpret.  If  we  mention  it  in  this  connection,  it  is 
only  because  of  the  influence  which  the  Hermeneutics 
of  a  past  age  exercised  upon  it ;  and  because  of  the  in- 
fluence which  it,  in  its  turn,  exercised  upon  the  new  her- 
meneutical science.  Naturalism  was,  as  we  have  said,  a 
dangerous  reaction  ;  but  it  was  nevertheless  a  reaction 
provoked  by  real  abuses.  Extreme  views  of  inspiration, 
double  sense,  types,  allegorical  and  mystical  interpreta- 
tions, examination  determined  by  an  arbitrary  theo- 
logical despotism  in  aid  of  the  principles  of  the  analogy 
of  faith,  of  the  inner  word,  of  the  revelation  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  of  the  true  sense  to  the  regenerate  only,  of  the 
incapacity  of  the  natural  man  to  understand  what  is  in 
the  Bible  and  to  recognize  its  divine  character  —  these 
and  such  extreme  views  in  theology  had  a  tendency  to 
repel  far  from  the  faith  men  who  joined  a  reflective  head 
to  a  cold  and  wickedly-disposed  heart.     The  rage  of  in- 


24  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

fidelity  was  terrible.  It  opened,  both  in  the  faith  of  the 
Church,  and  particularly  in  the  German  theology,  a  huge 
wound,  which  has  not  yet  been  healed.  We  must  not, 
however,  forget  the  good  effects  produced  by  this  violent 
treatment  of  the  science.  We  may  indicate  three  dif- 
ferent and  intimately  connected  results,  (a).  It  over- 
threw forever,  at  least  in  Germany,  a  certain  number  of 
errors  in  criticism,  which  had  been  confidently  admitted 
up  to  that  time,  or  at  least  it  caused  a  more  thorough 
examination  of  them,  a  modification  of  theories,  and  a 
search  for  more  logical  foundations.  (b).  It  brought 
theologians  to  feel  the  necessity  of  strengthening  re- 
ligion, which  had  undergone  such  a  violent  attack,  and 
of  constructing  more  solidly  the  edifice  of  theology. 
(c).  It  led  the  way  to  and  introduced  the  revival  of  her- 
meneutical  studies,  together  with  the  wise  combination 
of  their  different  elements. 

§    II.   SEVENTH   PERIOD. — THE   SCIENTIFIC   ERA. 

Latter  part  of  the  Eighteenth  and  beginning  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Centuries. 

From  this  time  we  must  seek  chiefly  in  Germany  for 
activity  in  the  department  of  Hermeneutics. 

England,  during  this  period,  rested  in  traditional 
routines,  and  France  troubled  herself  very  little  about 
Hermeneutics.  The  Roman  Catholic  countries,  out  of 
Germany,  shunned  examination  and  were  afraid  of 
science.  Belgium*  published,  under  the  name  of  Her- 
meneutics, works  in  which  their  authors  seriously  re- 
pelled the  accusation  of  disobeying  the  Church  in  admit- 
ting the  motion  of  the  earth,  and  in  denying  the  power 
of  sorcerers.     The   United    States,   it  is  true,    followed 


*  Janssens,  1818-1828. 


History  of  Hermeneutical  Principles.       25 

Germany  very  closely ;  but  they  devoted  themselves 
more  to  the  labors  of  erudition  and  exegesis  than  to  the 
investigation  of  principles  and  the  philosophy  of  meth- 
ods. Holland  is  always  laborious  and  scholarly,  but  its 
science  and  language  remain  almost  unknown  to  the  rest 
of  Europe. 

We  have,  therefore,  to  investigate  the  development  of 
Hermeneutics  in  Germany  during  the  last  half,  or  rather 
during  the  last  third  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Setting  out  from  this  epoch,  the  science  of  Herme- 
neutics is  represented  by  two  great,  opposite  schools — 
the  Grammatical  and  the  Historical. 

The  founder  of  the  School  of  Grammatical  Herme- 
neutics was  Ernesti,  who  based  sound  interpretation  upon 
the  philological  study  of  the  text,  conducted  in  a  con- 
scientious, profound,  and  learned  manner. 

This  method  assumed  a  great  respect  for  the  text :  it 
bound  itself  to  the  doctrine  of  inspiration,  which  made 
the  very  words  of  the  text  the  legitimate  source  of  au- 
thentic interpretation  and  of  religious  truth.  The  gram- 
matical school  was,  therefore,  essentially  supernatural- 
istic.  The  founder  of  it  and  his  disciples  were,  generally 
speaking,  conscientious  and  pious  theologians.  But  this 
method  was  evidently  insufficient,  not  only  in  the  means 
which  it  employed,  as  we  shall  see,  but  also  in  its  object. 
In  fact,  it  was  able  to  attain  only  to  a  pure  and  simple 
interpretation  of  the  text,  which  is  not  always  enough 
for  its  exposition. 

The  Historical  School,  on  the  contrary,  occupied  itself 
principally,  and  too  much,  with  exposition.  Its  founder 
was  Semler,  who,  although  personally  worthy  of  esteem, 
and  though  of  a  religious  and  sincere  character,  was  the 
real  father  of  German  rationalism.  The  fundamental 
principle  of  this  school  was  the  exposition  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  by  the  facts,  the  usages,  and  prejudices  of 


26  Biblical  Hermencutics. 

the  times.  This  principle,  true  within  certain  limits  and 
as  a  simple  auxiliary  of  the  science,  becomes  dangerous 
and  improper,  when  employed  exclusively.  Connected, 
from  that  time,  almost  necessarily,  with  the  idea  that  the 
Scriptures  are  fallible  human  productions,  containing 
error,  it  led  directly  to  rationalism.  This  school  bore  its 
fruits.  It  filled  Germany  with  a  crowd  of  theologians, 
without  piety,  without  faith,  and  without  life,  with  now 
and  then  original  thinkers  and  keen  critics,  distinguished 
only  by  the  rashness  and  fickleness  of  their  theories,  and 
by  the  superficial  and  vain  levity  of  the  hypotheses 
which  they  advanced  with  jealous  rivalry. 

To  sum  up  in  few  words,  the  grammatical  school 
was  judicious,  methodical,  enlightened  ;  but  it  was  in- 
sufficient ;  to  complete  it  other  methods  and  other  prin- 
ciples were  necessary.  The  historical  school  would  have 
been  useful  if  it  had  been  inspired  by  a  spirit  of  sound 
criticism  and  of  pious  prudence,  and,  in  the  exercise  of 
this  spirit,  been  contented  with  the  modest  character  of 
an  auxiliary,  instead  of  aspiring  to  supremacy.  But  it 
had  a  very  different  ambition.  It  was  in  reality  less  a 
cause  than  an  effect.  It  was  an  accident,  a  result  of  the 
movement  of  the  naturalistic  reaction  of  which  we  have 
just  spoken.  We  can  affirm,  without  rashness,  that  it 
developed  itself  under  the  influence  of  sentiments  slightly 
Christian,  and  of  dispositions  slightly  philosophic.  Its 
first  thought  was  hostile  to  the  Holy  Scriptures.  From 
effect  it  became  cause,  and  exerted  a  powerful  influence 
upon  the  rationalistic  movement,  which  was  the  curse  of 
Hermeneutics  during  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century. 
It  had  no  respect  for  the  divine  authority  of  the  Bible, 
and  this  barrier  having  been  removed,  the  science  was 
agitated  like  a  stormy  sea  lashing  on  every  hand  this 
ancient  monument  of  the  faith.  The  Bible,  mutilated 
by  a  great  variety  of  hypotheses,  and  under  the  efforts 


History  of  Hermeneutical  Principles.       2  J 

of  a  multitude  of  interpreters,  was  sometimes  viewed  as 
a  collection  of  enigmas,  of  which  it  was  the  glory  of  men 
of  talent  to  give  some  new  solution ;  sometimes  as  a 
canvas,  on  which  aspirants  after  fame  attempted  to  try 
their  powers  and  to  write  their  names ;  sometimes  as 
rude  material,  on  which  distinguished  intellects  should 
exercise  themselves  to  polish  and  fashion  it  after  their 
image.  The  great  mass  of  scholars  thought  no  more 
of  searching  for  moral  and  dogmatic  instruction  in 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  recognized  only,  in  appear- 
ance, their  right  to  impart  it.  In  the  midst  of  such  a 
commotion  of  minds  what  could  Hermeneutics  become? 

We  may  distinguish,  in  the  development  of  rational- 
ism, three  principal  hermeneutical  phases,  in  connection 
with  the  Historical  school,  but  applying  to  the  Bible 
very  different  processes  of  interpretation. 

(a).  The  old,  ridiculous,  stiff  rationalism  represented 
by  Paulus,  explained  all  the  miracles  by  natural  causes, 
and,  in  so  doing,  tortured  the  words  and  phrases  of  the 
Bible  until  it  imposed  a  sense  upon  them  suitable  to  its 
aims. 

(b).  Logical  rationalism,  represented  by  Wegscheider, 
laid  down  the  principle  that  the  Bible  has  no  authority, 
and  that  it  contains  less  truth  than  error.  However, 
when  once  delivered  from  its  authority,  and  having  no 
more  interest  to  pervert  it,  this  division  of  rationalism 
interpreted  the  Bible,  in  general,  logically  and  impar- 
tially, although  without  depth,  and  consequently  without 
intelligence. 

(c).  Pietistic  rationalism,  represented  by  De  Wette, 
assigned  great  value  to  faith,  but  placed  its  foundation 
elsewhere  than  in  the  Bible :  in  the  necessities  of  the 
heart,  for  example,  or  in  the  work  of  Christ,  or  in  the 
history  of  Christianity  and  of  its  efficacy;  but  not  in  the 
Holy  Scriptures.    These,  in  its  view,  are  a  venerable  and 


28  Biblical  Hermenetttics. 

providential,  but  a  human  and  imperfect  work.  Ac- 
cordingly it  interprets  them  with  remarkable  science  and 
sincerity,  blended  sometimes  with  admiration,  some- 
times with  aspersion  and  disdain. 

In  these  phases  which  we  have  indicated  by  their  prom- 
inent traits  and  noted  advocates  were  found  many  mixed 
shades  of  less  intense  colors. 

These  strange  movements  of  the  historical  school 
reacted  in  a  deplorable  manner  upon  the  grammatical 
study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  This  study  was  not 
abandoned,  but  it  was  rarely  conducted  in  a  severe  and 
conscientious  manner.  Instead  of  exercising  authority 
over  historical  study,  it  was  made  subject  to  it.  Often 
it  did  not  seem  to  aspire  to  a  faithful  interpretation 
regulated  by  the  principles  of  a  sound  Hermeneutics, 
but  to  a  paradoxical  exposition,  according  to  the  taste 
of  the  day,  and  consequently  false  and  forced.  This  is 
what  was  then  called  exegesis,  and  what  has,  for  a  long 
time,  drawn  down  upon  that  name  a  grave  and  unjust 
disfavor. 

In  the  midst  of  this  confusion  in  hermeneutical  science 
and  of  the  subversion  of  the  faith,  certain  pious  men 
and  certain  elevated  minds  became  frightened  at  the  re- 
sults, and  desired  to  save  from  ruin  the  efficacy  of  the 
Bible  and  the  respect  which  is  due  to  it.  Storr  employ- 
ed himself  in  the  defence  of  its  dogmatic  authority,  but 
he  made  some  concessions,  which  were,  in  his  opinion, 
required  by  sound  criticism  and  facts.  He  also  admitted 
the  principle  of  accommodation  in  the  quotation  of  Old 
Testament  passages  by  Christ  and  His  apostles.  "Kant 
introduced  the  system  of  moral  interpretation,  according 
to  which  preachers  and  schoolmasters  ought  to  explain 
Scripture,  without  regard  to  its  original  historical  mean- 
ing, in  such  a  manner  as  is  likely  to  prove  useful  to  the 
moral  condition  of  the  people,  and  also  to  put  such  useful 


History  of  Hcrmcncutical  Principles.       29 

matter  into  passages  which  do  not  contain  it.  The  his- 
torical part  of  Scripture,  which,  according  to  Kant,  con- 
tributes nothing  to  make  men  better,  is  purely  indiffer- 
ent, and  may  be  disposed  of  as  we  please. 

"  The  moral  amendment  of  mankind  is  the  proper 
object  of  the  entire  religion  of  reason,  and  therefore  the 
religion  of  reason  contains  the  supreme  principle  of  all 
Scriptural  exegesis. 

"  This  method  of  interpretation  Kant  applies,  in  all 
its  fruitfulness  of  result,  to  the  gospel  history  and  the 
doctrines  of  the  New  Testament,  by  setting  forth  the 
personified  idea  of  the  good  principle."* 


§    12.   EIGHTH   PERIOD. — PRESENT   ERA. 

In  a  state  of  things  such  as  that  which  we  have  just 
described,  Hermeneutics  agitated  by  dogmatic  warmth, 
by  imaginary  hypotheses,  by  methods  inconsiderately 
adopted  and  abandoned,  could  not  take  a  logical  and 
durable  form.  Nevertheless  the  very  errors  of  the 
science  contributed  to  its  progress,  for  agitation  is  al- 
ways, in  the  end,  more  useful  to  a  cause  than  apathy. 
This  era,  which  was  full  of  aberrations  and  constructed 
nothing  of  solid  worth,  was  nevertheless  eminently 
scientific.  It  made  experiments,  gained  victories,  estab- 
lished truths,  and  collected  materials,  by  which  the 
present  era  can  profit.  The  present  era  has  not  been 
characterized,  thus  far,  by  labors  of  the  first  order,  or  by 
any  remarkable  school,  or  by  a  decided  movement.  We 
can,  nevertheless,  observe  in  it  two  favorable  symptoms. 

In  the  first  place,  attention  has  been  directed  to  Her- 


*  Hagenbach's  Hist,  of  Doctrines,  Vol.  ii.,  p.  468.  New 
York:  Sheldon  &  Co.,  1868.  Davidson  on  Sacred  Hermeneutics, 
p.  194. 


3<d  Biblical  Hermcneutics. 

meneutics,  and  men  feel,  at  least  vaguely,  the  need  at 
last  of  constituting  the  science.  They  set  themselves 
more  seriously  to  the  work — if  not  of  raising  the  edifice 
of  the  science,  at  least  of  collecting  the  materials  and 
of  clearing  the  site.  Moreover,  instead  of  clinging  to 
a  single  principle,  they  draw  from  all  sources,  and  seem 
desirous  of  taking  from  each  school  whatever  it  possesses 
of  real  excellence.  It  is  true  that  in  consequence  of  this 
very  tendency,  attempts  have  been  made  to  restore 
ancient  errors,  which  seem  to  have  been  forever  dissi- 
pated. 

Let  us  attempt  to  sketch,  with  a  little  more  precision, 
the  present  condition  of  the  science. 

Both  the  Grammatical  School  and  the  Historical 
School  still  exist,  but  they  are  less  rigid  and  less  exclusive. 
They  no  longer  correspond  exactly  to  supernaturalism 
and  to  rationalism,  which  sometimes  seemed  to  come 
near  to  each  other  under  the  powerful  influence  of 
Schleiermacher,  and  tend,  not  to  blend  indiscriminately, 
but  to  unite  in  a  high  Christian  philosophy.  This  is  a 
circumstance  happy  in  this  respect,  that  it  has  revived 
religious  sentiment  and  piety  among  divines ;  but  it 
is  incapable  of  laying  a  solid  foundation  for  the  popular 
faith,  and  has  a  tendency,  moreover,  to  leave  the  Holy 
Scriptures  too  much  in  the  shade,  and  to  forget  their 
value  and  their  rights. 

The  grammatical  school  has  become  much  more  pro- 
found in  philology :  it  accomplishes  its  task  with  more 
exactness  and  intelligence ;  in  particular,  it  no  longer 
tolerates  a  bold  and  reckless  exegesis. 

The  enfeebled  historical  school  seeks  aid  more  than 
formerly  from  philological  knowledge,  and  devotes  itself 
less  to  hypotheses. 

In  general,  all  exegetes  agree  that  the  two  methods 
should  not  be  separated   the  one  from  the  other,  and 


History  of  Hermeneutical  Principles.       3 1 

that  when  separated  they  are  insufficient.  This  is  a 
great  advance. 

There  is  a  step  in  advance  greater  still.  Men  begin 
to  recognize,  moreover,  that  even  united  these  schools 
are  equally  insufficient,  and  that  the  interpreter  has  need 
of  other  resources.  In  particular,  it  is  required  of  him 
that  he  should  possess  dispositions  in  harmony  with 
those  of  the  authors  whose  writings  he  interprets.  This 
last  point  is  decisive  :  it  enlarges  and  rectifies  the  sci- 
ence. 

Hermeneutics,  as  a  science,  is  not  yet  fully  developed  ; 
but  practical  Hermeneutics,  or  Exegesis,  has  made  im- 
mense progress.  It  has  become  conscientious,  judicious, 
methodical,  active,  and  learned.  The  forced  and  par- 
tial exegesis  of  forty  years  ago  has  passed  away,  so  also 
has  the  erudite,  diffuse,  cold,  and  useless  exegesis  of  the 
commentators  of  a  still  earlier  date.  Now  they  seek  to 
understand,  to  feel,  and  to  cause  others  to  feel.  The 
art  has  far  outstripped  the  science ;  and  again,  as  often, 
instead  of  creating  the  art,  the  science  will  be  obliged  to 
receive  aid  from  the  success  of  the  former  in  discovering 
and  in  reducing  to  system  the  rules,  which  it  is  its  prov- 
ince to  impose  upon  the  art. 

Until  now,  as  we  have  already  stated,  the  science, 
properly  so  called,  has  consisted  entirely  of  attempts. 
If  we  examine  its  progress  during  the  last  forty  years, 
we  will  find  little  original  labor  and  nothing  complete. 
Nowhere  do  we  discover  an  intelligence  adequate  to  the 
range  and  limits  of  Hermeneutics,  or  a  plan  which  suf- 
ficiently and  completely  develops  the  science.  Very  few 
works  have  been  written  with  the  object  of  solving  its 
problems.  Certain  pamphlets  and  certain  articles  in 
journals  have  advanced  some  new  ideas,  and  have  often 
restored  ideas  which  have  been  for  a  long  time  forgotten. 

Some  authors  deserve  particular  mention,  not  as  hav- 


32  Biblical  Hermcnctitics. 


ing  constituted  the  science,  but  as  having  placed  in  the 
light  some  of  its  neglected  features,  and  as  having  given 
to  it  some  useful  and  practical  directions. 

Liicke,  in  a  book,  the  work  of  his  youth,  which  con- 
tains many  striking  and  original  things,  has  proclaimed 
the  importance  of  taking  into  account  the  moral  charac- 
ter of  the  interpreter;  but  this  book,  in  the  judgment  of 
the  author  himself,  is  only  an  imperfect  sketch. 

Germar  has  developed,  in  several  works,  what  he  calls 
panharmonic  Hermeneutics.  The  fundamental  principle 
of  his  theory  is  of  little  value  and  really  introduces  no 
new  element  into  the  science.  In  reality  it  is  limited  to 
the  task  of  establishing,  with  a  great  display  of  brilliant 
elucidation  and  sprightly  diction,  that  interpretation 
ought  to  be  directed  by  logic  and  good  sense.  But,  if 
the  originality  of  the  object  and  of  the  discovery  of  this 
principle  is  only  in  appearance,  the  originality  of  its  de- 
ductions is  as  real  as  fruitful.  While  attacking  old  her- 
meneutical  methods  and  analyzing,  with  some  profun- 
dity, the  direction  of  the  science  and  the  intellectual 
labor  of  the  interpreter,  Germar  said  many  things  that 
were  new,  philosophic,  of  striking  truth,  and  of  continual 
application.  Moreover,  the  numerous  examples,  the 
multiplied  elucidations,  the  ingenious  developments  with 
which  he  enriched  and  completely  filled  his  work,  have 
caused  many  petty  routines  and  narrow  ideas  to  disap- 
pear. In  particular,  Germar  has  demonstrated  so  clearly 
the  absurdity  of  the  exclusive  pretensions  of  the  Gram- 
matical and  Historical  Hermeneutical  Schools  to  ex- 
plain, without  assistance,  the  Holy  Scriptures,  that  the 
question  has  ever  since  been  regarded  as  decided. 

If  the  Hermeneutics  of  Schleiermacher  had  issued 
from  his  hands  complete  and  finished,  it  would  have 
been  of  great  value,  and  the  inventive  genius  of  that  ex- 
traordinary man  would,  perhaps,  have  given  to  this  sci- 


History  of  Hermcueiitical  Principles.      33 

ence  a  decisive  impulse.  But  he  was  not  able  either  to 
publish,  or  even  to  commit  to  writing,  the  work  alluded 
to.  Liicke,  whose  intelligent  perseverance  collected  and 
put  together  some  posthumous  leaves,  some  marginal 
notes,  some  fragments  of  a  course  of  study,  succeeded, 
with  aid  drawn  from  the  note-books  of  students,  in  pro- 
ducing an  able  and  faithful  sketch  of  the  teaching  of  his 
master.  This  sketch  is,  without  doubt,  a  great  and  new 
service  rendered  to  the  progress  of  Hermeneutics ;  for 
though  short  and  incomplete,  it  is  full  of  original  views 
and  prolific  ideas.  Nevertheless,  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  it  is  still  far  from  developing  and  elucidating 
the  whole  science. 

Klausen,  a  Dane,  published  a  treatise  on  Hermeneu- 
tics, chiefly  historical,  which  was  translated  into  German, 
in  1 84 1.  We  have  borrowed  from  him  some  details  for 
that  portion  of  this  work  which  treats  of  grammatical 
Hermeneutics. 

In  1843  and  1844  Wilke  published,  in  two  volumes,  a 
treatise  on  Hermeneutics,  much  more  prominent  for  the 
richness  of  its  grammatical  developments  than  for  the 
methodical  appearance  of  its  plan,  which  was  really  con- 
fused and  incomplete. 

In  the  same  year  Samuel  Davidson,  LL.D.,  published 
a  work  on  Sacred  Hermeneutics,  developed  and  applied  ; 
including  a  history  of  Biblical  interpretation  from  the 
earliest  of  the  Fathers  to  the  Reformation. 

In  1859,  Patrick  Fairbairn,  D.D.,  published  a  Herme- 
neutical  Manual,  or  Introduction  to  the  Exegetical  Study 
of  the  Scriptures  of  the  New  Testament,  the  principal 
aim  of  which  is  to  apply  hermeneutical  principles  to  par- 
ticular cases. 

In  1862,  J.  J.  Doedes,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in 
the  University  of  Utrecht,  published  a  Manual  of  Her- 
meneutics for  the  Writings  of  the  New  Testament. 


34  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

In  1877,  the  Andover  Press  issued  a  work  on  the  Her- 
meneutics of  the  New  Testament,  by  Dr.  A.  Immer, 
Professor  of  Theology  in  the  University  of  Berne. 

In  the  main  the  science  of  Hermeneutics  is  progress- 
ing. On  the  side  of  its  real  progress,  we  should,  it  is 
true,  notice  here  and  there  some  retrograde  steps ;  but 
these  are  ordinarily  but  partial  errors,  less  grave  than  at 
their  origin,  and  very  much  overbalanced  by  the  gener- 
ally recognized  truths  with  which  the  science  has,  in  its 
advance,  been  enriched. 

Olshausen  revived  the  principles  of  Origen  and  the 
double  sense  of  prophecy ;  but  he  restricted  their  appli- 
cation to  the  Old  Testament.  The  German  Pietists 
have  renewed  the  principle  of  the  Quakers,  but  with  less 
tenacity  and  infallible  assurance.  Some  seem  inclined 
to  revive  Cocceianism ;  and  some  have  returned  to  the 
view  of  Spener  concerning  the  inability  of  the  natural 
man  to  understand  the  meaning  of  the  Bible.  But,  in 
reality,  all,  in  their  practice,  usually  avoid,  by  happy  in- 
consistencies, the  logical  consequence  of  their  errors. 

In  the  movement  of  the  present  period,  one  thing  is 
evident :  thoughtful  Christian  theologians  are  anxious 
to  develop  and  advance  the  science  of  Biblical  Herme- 
neutics. They  will  succeed,  we  hope,  if  their  efforts  shall 
not  be  too  much  embarrassed  by  the  progress  of  differ- 
ent schools  hostile  to  the  authority  of  the  Holy  Script- 
ures. 

Before  we  enter  upon  the  discussion  of  our  subject,  it 
is  necessary  to  elucidate  a  preliminary  question. 


The  Unity  of  the  Sense  of  Scripture.         35 


SECTION   THIRD. 

THE   UNITY  OF  THE  SENSE  OF  SCRIPTURE. 

§    13.   STATE   OF  THE   QUESTION. 

PREVIOUS  to  an  analysis  of  the  elements  of  Herme- 
neutics,  we  must  be  certain  that  it  can  exist  as  a  science. 
This  is  denied  by  some  divines,  who  have  pretended, 
and  who,  at  the  present  day,  pretend  that  Scripture  has 
many  senses,  that  each  passage  can  be  understood  in 
very  different  ways,  all  equally  conformed  to  the  divine 
thought.  If  it  is  possible  for  it  to  have  a  great  number 
of  true  senses,  no  one  of  them  can  be  sufficient,  satisfac- 
tory, or  certain.  They  exceed  the  sphere  of  logic  and 
the  conditions  of  science.  Hermeneutics  has  no  longer 
a  significant  result  and  is  unworthy  of  our  attention. 
We  may  at  once  disregard  all  method  and  abandon  the 
interpretation  of  the  Scriptures  to  the  instincts  of  each 
one,  or  to  his  individual  inspiration. 

Thus  arrested  in  our  progress  by  an  assertion,  which 
would  be  strange,  if  it  were  not  so  ancient  and  so  well 
known,  we  must,  first  of  all,  devote  some  space  to  the 
examination  of  it.  We  shall  attempt  to  examine  it  first 
a  priori,  or  according  to  the  nature  of  things ;  then  a 
posteriori,  or  according  to  the  facts. 

§    14.   EXAMINATION   A   PRIORI. 

In  consequence  of  human  conventionality,  certain 
words  express  certain  ideas.  Outside  of  this  conven- 
tionality they  express  nothing  and  arc  nothing.     They 


36  Biblical  Hcrmencutics. 

attain  their  object  and  possess  reality  only  as  an  ac- 
knowledged means  of  communication  among  men.  Re- 
move this  conventionality  and  mutual  agreement,  and 
words  serve  no  purpose,  or  else  they  serve  to  deceive. 
Moreover,  all  conventionality,  or  all  agreement  of  this 
kind,  even  silent  and  understood,  supposes  that  the  words 
have  a  sense  clear,  incontested,  and  consequently  unique. 
Beyond  this  sense,  there  is  no  intelligent  intercourse. 
Accordingly  words  have  ever  received  from  their  origin 
a  unique  and  precise  sense.  This  sense  is  often  extended, 
obscured,  and  then  multiplied,  in  consequence  of  the 
irregularities  of  language,  of  new  ideas  due  to  civiliza- 
tion, and  of  the  need  of  metaphors  inherent  in  the  hu- 
man mind.  But  the  ambiguity  resulting  from  these  new 
significations  given  to  primitive  words  is  an  inconveni- 
ence :  it  owes  its  existence  to  accident  and  not  to  inten- 
tion ;  and  it  is  resolved  and  vanishes  by  comparison,  re- 
flection, and  usage.  Should  any  ambiguity  still  remain, 
the  context,  if  carefully  studied,  with  such  complemental 
aids  as  can  be  obtained  from  other  sources,  will  tend  far 
to  remove  it. 

Conventionality  is  thus  only  extended,  not  violated. 

Now,  how  can  we  suppose  a  double  sense  in  Script- 
ure? Shall  we  suppose  that  the  Most  High,  who 
knows  how  to  use  human  language,  abused  that  lan- 
guage, while  employing  it  to  communicate  to  men  those 
things  which  pertain  to  their  salvation  ?  Shall  we  im- 
pute ignorance  to  Him  ?  Or  will  He  be  guilty  of  decep- 
tion, error,  or  voluntary  obscurity  ?  Let  us  beware.  By 
assigning  a  double  sense  to  Scripture,  we  attribute  to  the 
Divine  Legislator  a  course  of  conduct  which  would  ex- 
cite indignation  against  a  human  legislator. 

Further:  the  admission  of  such  a  hypothesis  would 
produce  consequences  as  disastrous  as  wide-spread. 

Let  us  suppose,  for  a  moment,  that  the  Scripture  has 


The  Unity  of  the  Sense  of  Sc7'ipture.        ?>7 

many  significations  ;  that  instead  of  a  clear  and  single 
sense,  of  a  nature  to  be  investigated  methodically,  and 
accepted  with  confidence,  it  should  have  several  mysteri- 
ous senses,  accessible  only  to  certain  cultured,  subtile 
minds ;  that  instead  of  being  a  perspicuous  and  popular 
book,  level  to  every  capacity  and  in  harmony  with  our 
faculties,  it  should  contain  an  enigma  under  each  phrase. 
What  would  be  the  consequences,  and  what  would  be- 
come of  the  Bible? 

The  consequences  would  be  the  following : 

§    15.   CONSEQUENCES   OF   THE   HYPOTHESIS   OF  A 
MULTIPLE   SENSE. 

(a).  First  of  all,  the  problem  of  interpretation  becomes 
indeterminate.  If  all  solutions,  or  if  only  several  solu- 
tions are  equally  good,  they  can  not  be  found  methodi- 
cally. Among  the  many  zealous  advocates  of  a  multi- 
plicity of  senses,  the  man  is  still  to  be  found,  who  would 
be  willing  to  determine  these  senses  by  logic  and  analy- 
sis. They  employ  only  their  individual  and  arbitrary 
methods,  or  rather  they  leave  the  sense  to  each  one's 
imagination.  This  proves  the  first  consequence.  We 
pass  to  the  second. 

(b).  With  a  sense  easy  to  be  determined,  the  active 
dispositions  excited  in  the  interpreter  and  exercised  by 
him  are  logic  and  good  sense,  united  to  love  of  truth 
and  earnestness  of  faith.  With  the  multiple  sense,  the 
subtile  spirit,  ingenious  skill,  the  art  of  foreseeing  mys- 
teries, of  discovering  enigmas,  and  a  vain  curiosity,  oc- 
cupy in  him  the  first  place.  In  this  case  the  Bible  is  not 
considered  as  given  to  man  to  instruct,  to  edify,  and  to 
direct  him  ;  but  as  given  to  the  theologian  to  furnish  a 
field  for  the  display  of  his  wit  and  vanity. 

(c).  In  the  third  place,  the  hypothesis  of  a  multiple 


38  Biblical  Hcrmencutics. 

sense  supposes  and  establishes  a  profound  and  radical 
distinction  between  the  logical  methods  which  God  has 
given  us  in  order  to  discover  the  truth,  and  the  methods 
to  be  followed  in  the  interpretation  of  Scripture ;  conse- 
quently between  our  faculties  and  Revelation,  between 
the  God  of  the  intellect  and  the  God  of  the  Bible.  It 
is  no  longer  necessary  to  seek  for  those  wonderful  analo- 
gies between  reason  and  faith,  between  nature  and  the 
Gospel,  which  delight  the  intelligent  Christian,  which 
persuade  and  convince  the  pious  thinker.  There  is  war, 
relentless  war,  between  these  two  classes  of  truths.  Man 
finds  himself  obliged  to  listen  to  two  systems  of  logic, 
to  two  consciences,  to  two  revelations,  to  two  contradic- 
tory Gods.  The  Christian  has  a  Bible  that  trifles  with 
his  candor  and  lays  snares  for  his  feet.  Thus  this  hy- 
pothesis, apparently  due  to  an  extreme  respect  for  the 
Bible,  really  conduces  to  bring  it  into  contempt. 

id).  Another  consequence.  In  practice,  even  in  the 
practice  of  pious  people  and  of  the  most  humble  be- 
lievers, what  will  the  Bible  become?  It  will  become  a 
changeable,  doubtful  law,  flexible  at  the  will  of  their 
fancies,  or  of  their  passions.  In  the  case  of  different 
senses,  given  not  by  a  logical  method  and  a  sound  judg- 
ment, but  by  imagination  and  instinct,  no  one  can  claim 
the  preference  over  others,  no  one  has  exclusive  author- 
ity ;  but  each  one  is  left  to  arbitrary  choice.  In  vain 
will  we  acknowledge,  as  legitimate,  the  authority  of  all : 
we  will,  in  fact,  choose,  prefer,  and  direct  our  attention 
most  favorably  to  the  sense  which  we  have  discovered, 
to  that  which  flatters  our  self-love,  corresponds  to  our 
ideas,  to  our  tendencies,  and  to  our  tastes,  perhaps  to 
our  inclinations.  In  the  meantime  we  will  leave,  in  the 
shade  and  in  oblivion,  the  clear  and  positive  sense ;  the 
imperative  and  literal  sense,  which  displeases  us,  perhaps 
because  it  condemns  us,  and    perhaps  the  very  sense 


The  Unity  of  the  Sense  of  Scripture.        39 

which  must  save  us.     Sad  experience  confirms  what  has 
just  been  said. 

(c).  Our  last  consequence  is  only  the  result  and  neces- 
sary conclusion  of  all  those  which  precede.  Delivered 
up  to  human  fancies,  the  Bible  is  covered  over  with 
them  and  disfigured.  The  simple  and  transparent  beauty 
of  the  Sacred  Book  gives  place  to  a  mass  of  human  fan- 
cies, of  mystical,  allegorical,  scholastic,  philosophical, 
physical,  and  astronomical,  glosses,  sometimes  ingenious 
and  witty,  never  simple  and  popular.  The  pious  Chris- 
tian, who  "  hungers  and  thirsts  after  righteousness," 
seeks  for  the  word  of  life,  and  finds  in  its  place  only  hu- 
man fancies  and  brilliant  trifles.  He  longs  bitterly  for 
the  simple,  clear,  edifying,  and  divine  Bible  of  his  youth. 
He  feels  like  a  godly  theologian,*  who,  having  listened 
to  a  sermon  without  piety,  said  with  the  weeping  Mary: 
"  They  have  taken  away  my  Lord,  and  I  know  not  where 
they  have  laid  him."     (John  xx.  13). 

§    16.    EXAMINATION  A   POSTERIORI. 

The  theory  of  the  multiple  sense  of  Scripture  is,  there* 
fore,  a  paradox.  But  everything,  even  a  paradox,  must 
have  a  cause.  Where  shall  we  search  for  that  of  the 
theory  in  question?  Is  it  found  in  real  facts,  or  in  self- 
ish feelings  ?  This  is  the  point  that  now  presents  itself 
for  examination.  We  shall,  therefore,  proceed  to  inves- 
tigate (1)  those  Biblical  facts  which,  without  justifying 
this  hypothesis,  have  been  the  occasion  of  it ;  and  (2) 
the  tendencies  which  have  fortified  it. 

As  to  the  Biblical  facts,  we  are  forced  to  enter  some- 
what into  detail,  and  even  to  say  many  things  which  may 
seem  useless ;  but  that  is  not  our  fault.     The  advocates 

*  Lavater. 


40  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

of  a  multiple  sense  have  supported  their  theory  not  only 
by  the  facts,  which  appear  to  prove  something  and  which 
deserve  to  be  discussed  ;  but  also  by  a  multitude  of  false 
and  confused  analogies,  which  can  not  sustain  examina- 
tion. To  attain  our  object  we  are  obliged  to  cite  all  the 
particulars  and  to  reply  to  them. 

The  Biblical  facts,  upon  which  reliance  has  been  placed 
to  defend  the  theory  of  a  multiple  sense,  are  of  very  dif- 
ferent kinds.  They  may  be  distinguished  into  philologi- 
cal, symbolical,  prophetical,  and  typical  facts. 

§    17.    PHILOLOGICAL    FACTS,   t.   C,   THOSE   PERTAINING 
TO    LANGUAGE. 

These  are,  in  the  first  place,  passages  so  obscure  as  to 
be  susceptible  of  several  senses,  which  fact  has  led  to 
the  supposition  that  all  these  senses  are  equally  well 
founded. 

But  these  obscurities  belong  to  the  very  essence  of 
Revelation,  which  is  composed  of  truths  for  the  most 
part  superior  to  our  limited  intelligence,  and  yet  placed 
in  harmony  with  it.  These  truths  must  be  expressed  in 
human  language,  made  for  this  world  and  inadequate  to 
the  expression  of  them.  Hence,  passages  which  possess 
an  obscure  character,  depths  which  can  not  be  completely 
sounded,  mysteries  that  can  not  be  fully  unveiled,  prob- 
lems which  the  human  mind  has  attempted  to  resolve  in 
different  ways,  frequently  occur.  In  such  instances 
several  senses  may  seem  to  be  equally  plausible  and  to 
fulfill  equally  the  requirements  of  exegesis,  and  hence  it 
has  been  concluded  that  such  passages  possess  several 
senses,  or  a  double  sense.  But  the  double  sense  lies  in 
the  feebleness  of  the  human  mind,  not  in  Revelation. 
It  pertains  either  to  our  incapacity  to  grasp  divine 
things  in  their  totality,  or  to  the  impossibility  of  express- 


The  Unity  of  the  Sense  of  Scripture.        41 

ing  them  with  sufficient  clearness,  but  not  to  the  real 
nature  of  the  truths  revealed.  In  other  words,  the  diffi- 
culty exists  only  in  ourselves ;  it  does  not  exist  in  God. 

Other  facts,  in  the  second  place,  pertain  to  the  special 
nature  of  the  language  which  has  been  employed  as  the 
vehicle  of  Revelation,  which  has  been  clothed  with 
popular  forms  strongly  impressed  with  the  habits  of  the 
East,  that  is  to  say,  with  metaphorical,  poetical,  and 
parabolical  forms,  which  convey  a  meaning  different 
from  that  of  the  literal  sense  of  the  words.  But  even 
then  there  are  not  two  senses,  the  literal  and  the  meta- 
phorical. The  metaphorical  is  alone  the  real  sense;  the 
literal  does  not  exist  as  a  sense ;  it  is  only  the  vehicle  of 
the  former;  it  contains  in  itself  no  result,  no  truth. 
There  is,  therefore,  only  one  real  sense. 

Some  may  perhaps  offer,  by  way  of  objection,  two 
particular  cases  of  metaphorical  language,  allegories  and 
paronomasias.  The  consideration  of  these  cases  will  de- 
tain us  a  moment. 

Allegories  are  only  prolonged  metaphors,  which  we 
may  treat  as  we  do  ordinary  metaphors.  They  have 
only  the  appearance  of  a  double  sense ;  but  one  finds  in 
them  really  no  double  idea.  And,  which  is  a  remarkable 
fact,  allegories,  which  are  so  frequent  with  the  writers 
of  the  East,  are  in  the  Bible,  rare,  brief,  and  clear.  Con- 
sidered under  this  point  of  view,  the  Scriptures  arc 
widely  distinguished  from  other  Oriental  writings ;  and 
we  are  led  to  see,  in  this  distinction,  the  spirit  of  clear- 
ness, of  simplicity,  and  of  unity,  which  God  has  made 
the  essential  characteristic  of  His  work. 

Paronomasias  arc  frequent  in  the  Bible  ;  but  no  more 
than  allegories  do  they  contain  a  double  sense.  Paron- 
omasia is  a  play  upon  words.  It  is  a  figure  of  speech 
by  which  the  same  word  is  used  in  different  senses,  or 
words  similar  in  sound  arc    set   in  opposition   to   each 


42  Biblical  Hermeneuiics. 

other,  so  as  to  give  a  kind  of  antithetical  force  to  the 
sentence.  It  is  a  play  upon  the  sound  of  a  word,  by 
which  a  new  and  unexpected  meaning  is  given  to  it. 
But  are  there,  in  such  a  case,  two  senses,  that  is,  two 
simultaneous  ideas,  between  which  we  may  hesitate  or 
choose  ?  No.  There  are  two  distinct  and  successive 
ideas  connected  by  a  play  upon  words.  Often  they 
contain  only  a  single  idea,  which  is  rendered  more 
striking  by  the  resemblance  between  the  syllables  of 
similar  sound.  To  call  that  a  double  sense,  to  see  in  it 
a  motive,  an  argument,  a  reason  to  suppose  that  the 
phrases  of  the  Bible  may  properly  be  interpreted  in  dif- 
ferent senses,  is  to  take  up  a  vague  semblance  as  a 
reality,  without  the  least  endeavor  to  distinguish  what 
is  literal  from  a  metaphor,  and  from  a  play  upon  words. 

§    1 8.   SYMBOLICAL   FACTS. 

We  designate  as  such  facts  that  are  real  and  suffi- 
ciently clear,  facts  which  do  not  prove  a  double  sense, 
nor  form  any  presumption  in  its  favor,  but  from  which 
some  have  believed  that  they  could  derive  support  for 
this  theory  on  account  of  their  singular  and  striking 
character. 

These  facts  are  first  the  symbolical  actions  of  the 
prophets — a  means  wholly  Oriental — which  they  em- 
ployed to  impress  the  imagination  and  to  fix  firmly  in 
the  memory  the  future  events  thus  announced.  For 
example,  Ezekiel  (xii.  7)  made  a  breach  in  the  wall  ot 
his  house,  and  escaped  through  it  by  night,  laden  with 
his  goods,  in  order  to  announce  the  assault  which  was  to 
be  made  upon  Jerusalem,  and  the  disastrous  flight  of 
the  king  of  Judah.  Acts  of  this  kind  are  very  frequent 
with  some  prophets;  but  the  prophet  himself  took  care 
to  explain  them :  the  sense,  far  from  being  multiple,  was 


The  Unity  of  the  Sense  of  Scripture.        43 

very  positive,  and  attained  its  object  only  on  this  con- 
dition. What  connection  can  we  find  between  these  sig- 
nificant actions  and  words  of  a  double  sense  ?  They 
furnish,  without  doubt,  evident  proof  of  the  Oriental 
taste  for  figurative  language ;  but  that  is  all.  How  can 
any  one,  from  these  perfectly  clear  facts,  intended  to 
convey,  in  a  more  striking  manner,  instruction  no  less 
clear  and  incontestable,  draw  anything  in  favor  of  the 
extravagant  conceits  of  Origen  and  Cocceius? 

There  is  another  class  of  facts  about  which  we  ought 
to  say  a  word — a  class  very  different  from  the  first,  but 
as  little  applicable  to  the  point  which  they  are  intended 
to  prove. 

We  mean  institutions,  designed,  at  least  secondarily, 
to  preserve,  or  to  awaken  certain  ideas.  The  science, 
the  object  of  which  is  to  collect  and  explain  the  facts  of 
these  institutions,  is  called  Symbolics. 

For  example,  a  bloody  sacrifice  implied,  on  the  part 
of  him  who  offered  the  victim,  the  confession  of  his 
faults  and  of  sins  worthy  of  punishment.  The  offerings 
and  first-fruits,  required  by  the  Mosaic  law,  were  a  recog- 
nition of  the  right  of  property  which  Jehovah,  the  God 
and  King  of  the  Hebrews,  claimed  in  their  country.  The 
concentric  enclosures  of  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
gradual  purifications  of  those  who  had  the  privilege  of 
entering  them,  taught  clearly  the  holiness  of  God  and  the 
pollution  of  man. 

All  this  is  true,  without  doubt ;  but  in  what  does  it 
conduce  to  the  double  or  to  the  quadruple  sense  of  a 
single  phrase,  or  of  a  single  passage  ? 

Symbolics,  an  interesting  and  an  important  science,  has 
been  sometimes  exaggerated  to  a  ridiculous  and  absurd 
degree.  Nevertheless,  in  its  greatest  exaggerations,  it 
has  remained  completely  and  necessarily  distinct  from 
the  theories  of  the  multiple  sense. 


44  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


§    19.    PROPHETICAL  FACTS. 

It  is  on  the  prophecies  that  the  advocates  of  the 
theory  of  a  double  sense  chiefly  rely  for  support ;  and 
from  the  prophetical  writings  the  theory  has  been  ex- 
tended to  the  whole  Bible. 

Some  special  facts  explain  this:  1.  The  first  is  the 
obscurity  more  or  less  inherent  in  all  the  prophecies,  in 
consequence  of  their  object  and  their  very  nature. 

It  results  from  the  nature  of  Revelation  that,  while 
revealed  laws  must  be  clear  and  doctrines  distinctly  and 
positively  taught,  prophecies  can  be  clearly  understood 
only  after  the  event.  It  is  not  difficult  to  perceive  that 
their  entire  freedom  from  all  ambiguity,  or  indefiniteness, 
would  be  accompanied  with  many  inconveniences  :  it 
would  be  in  opposition  to  the  analogy  of  the  divine 
methods ;  and  moreover,  it  would  be  impossible  in  fact. 
Was  not  the  prophet  under  the  necessity  of  expressing 
himself  in  images,  in  ideas,  in  contemporaneous  and  local 
phrases  concerning  facts  and  truths,  with  which  the  men 
of  his  time  were  not  conversant,  and  which  consequently 
they  could  not  clearly  understand  ?  He,  therefore,  who 
uttered  prophecies,  uttered  obscure  revelations,  and  yet 
of  a  nature  to  fix  attention  and  to  excite  curiosity.  The 
result  of  this  has  been  that  prophecies  oftentimes  appear 
susceptible  of  different  solutions  ;  and  that,  instead  of 
choosing  between  these  solutions,  some  have  yielded  to 
the  temptation  of  adding  others  to  them. 

2.  The  attentive  study  of  the  prophecies  has  led  some 
men  of  science,  and  at  the  same  time  devout  Christians, 
to  admit  that  a  portion  of  this  obscurity  is  due  to  the 
individuality  of  the  prophets.  According  to  this  hypoth- 
esis, the  natural  faculties  of  the  prophet  were,  as  a  con- 
sequence of  the  nature  of  prophetical  inspiration,  the 


The  Unity  of  the  Sense  of  Scrip tii re.         45 

recipients  of  the  supernatural  but  incomplete  knowledge 
imparted  to  him.  His  faculties  retained  their  normal 
condition  and  were  exercised  in  a  normal  manner,  while 
under  the  prophetic  afflatus.  It  was,  moreover,  generally 
by  a  species  of  vision  that  the  prophet  acquired  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  future.  Some  confusion  would  result  from 
this,  especially  as  to  the  time  to  which  the  prophet  re- 
ferred the  objects  of  the  vision,  and  consequently  as  to 
the  objects  themselves,  when  there  was  any  analogy  be- 
tween them.  Events  of  the  same  nature,  which  might 
appertain  really  to  times  very  different,  presented  them- 
selves to  him  as  connected  in  time,  and  as  types,  the  one 
of  the  other. 

For  example,  the  deliverance  of  Israel  and  redemption, 
the  restoration  of  worship  and  the  calling  of  the  Gen- 
tiles. In  this  state  of  things,  interpreters  who  have  not 
discovered  this  key  to  the  obscurities  of  prophecy,  have 
been  led  to  the  conclusion  that  such  prophecies  have,  at 
the  same  time,  two  objects  and  two  senses. 

3.  The  New  Testament  contains  a  great  many  proph- 
ecies, quoted  by  the  Apostles  from  the  Old  Testament, 
in  a  sense  which  some  imagine  to  be  very  different  from 
the  primary  one  in  the  O.  T.  It  is  not  necessary  to  pro- 
duce these  examples  here,  since  everybody  knows  them. 
Setting  out  from  the  correct  idea  that  the  Apostles  were 
inspired  and  infallible  expounders  of  Scripture,  and  as- 
suming that  the  sense  given  by  them  to  the  quotations 
just  mentioned  is  different  from  that  which  they  have  in 
their  original  place,  some  have  adopted  the  view  that  all 
such  passages  have  two  senses,  and,  perhaps,  more.  In 
this  way  the  theory  of  a  double  sense  is  made  to  rest  on 
the  inspiration  of  the  Apostles. 

The  quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New 
have  occasioned  much  difficulty  to  Biblical  critics.  This 
difficulty  arises  sometimes  from  the  application  of  such 


46  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

quotations  ;  for  example,  when  they  are  applied  to  a 
purpose  to  which  they  seem  to  have  no  relation,  accord- 
ing to  their  original  design.  The  writers  of  the  New 
Testament  make  quotations  from  the  Old  with  very  dif- 
ferent views ;  we  must  attend,  therefore,  to  their  real 
view  in  a  particular  quotation.  An  accurate  distinction 
must  be  made  between  such  quotations  as,  being  merely 
borrowed,  are  used  as  the  words  of  the  writer  himself, 
and  such  as  are  quoted  in  proof  of  a  doctrine,  or  the 
completion  of  a  prophecy. 

§   20.    TYPICAL  FACTS. 

These  facts  are  the  most  prominent,  the  best  known, 
and  those  upon  which  theologians  who  advocate  the 
double  sense,  rely  with  the  greatest  confidence. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  theologians,  both  of  early  and 
modern  times,  that  many  of  the  events,  personages,  and 
institutions  of  the  Old  Testament  were  designed  by  the 
Holy  Spirit  to  typify  and  predict  events,  personages, 
and  institutions  of  the  New.  These  events,  personages, 
and  institutions  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  were  so 
designed,  are  called  types ;  and  their  corresponding  ob- 
jects in  the  New  are  called  antitypes.  Admitting  the 
existence  of  such  types,  the  theory  of  a  double  sense 
does  not  follow.  Nevertheless  they  contribute  indirectly 
to  the  theory  by  accustoming  the  reader  to  look  at 
something  else  than  the  literal  sense  and  the  recorded 
fact. 

Some  theologians  who  reject  the  theory  of  a  double 
sense,  to  evade  the  conclusion  that  it  seems  to  result 
from  the  system  of  types  in  the  Old  Testament,  discard 
types  altogether  and  have  recourse  to  the  convenient 
principle  of  accommodation.  This  principle,  or  theory, 
is  perhaps  more  dangerous  than  that  which  it  seeks  to 


The  U?iity  of  the  Sense  of  Scripture.         47 

displace.  It  fails  to  take  sufficiently  into  account  the  con- 
nection subsisting  between  the  O.  T.  and  the  N.  T.  dispen- 
sations. In  the  words  of  St.  Augustine,  the  former  is  a 
prophecy  of  the  latter.  The  Old  Testament  contains 
the  New  in  germ.  Moreover,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a 
due  regard  to  the  essential  difference  between  the  nature 
of  type  and  antitype.  The  typical  is  Divine  truth  on  a 
lower  stage,  exhibited  by  means  of  outward  relations 
and  terrestrial  interests ;  the  antitypical  is  Divine  truth 
on  a  higher  stage,  with  a  more  heavenly  aspect.  In  the 
former,  we  see  the  outward,  the  present,  the  worldly  ; 
in  the  latter,  the  inward,  the  future,  the  heavenly.  Con- 
sidered thus,  types  lend  no  aid  to  the  theory  of  a  double 
sense. 

§   21.    RESULTS   OF  THESE   FACTS. 

If  we  now  sum  up  this  rapid  examination  of  the  dif- 
ferent classes  of  facts,  and  of  the  Biblical  phenomena, 
upon  which  some  have  pretended  to  found  the  theory 
of  a  double  sense,  we  will  discover  the  two  following 
results — the  one  negative,  the  other  positive  : 

1.  The  negative  result : 

The  imperfection  of  human  language,  the  imperfection 
of  men  to  whom  Revelation  was  made ;  and  the  imper- 
fection of  those  who  were  employed  as  its  instruments. 

2.  Positive  result : 

The  intimate  relations,  real  and  divine,  between  the 
Old  and  the  New  Testaments — relations  that  evidently 
rendered  the  former  preparatory  to  and  predictive  of 
the  latter.  This  is  particularly  proved  by  the  symbol- 
ical institutions,  prophecies,  and  types  of  the  Old. 
Nothing  is  found  to  support  the  theory  of  a  double 
sense.  This  theory  has  its  origin  in  the  forgetfulness  of 
the  negative  result,  in  the  exaggeration  of  the  positive, 


48  Biblical  Hernteneutics. 

and  especially  in  the  badly  regulated  imaginations  of 
certain  divines. 

This  brings  us  to  a  new  element  in  our  examination 
a  posteriori — that  of  the  intellectual  tendencies,  which 
have  developed  and  fortified,  in  the  Church,  the  theory 
of  a  double  sense. 

§  22.  TENDENCIES  WHICH  HAVE  FAVORED  THE  THEORY 
OF  A  DOUBLE   SENSE. 

There  are  three  tendencies  which  have  favored  the 
theory  of  a  double  sense. 

l.  An  intellectual  tendency. 

Among  the  divines  of  the  primitive  Church,  and 
among  those  of  the  Middle  Ages,  there  was  a  common 
lack  of  logic  and  of  method.  Generally  speaking,  the 
methodical  and  philosophical  spirit,  especially  in  the 
theological  sciences,  is  modern.  The  men  of  genius,  in 
the  first  centuries  of  the  Church — the  Origens  and  the 
Augustines — who  exercised  a  commanding  influence 
upon  succeeding  generations,  were  distinguished  for 
their  sensibility,  piety,  and  imagination,  qualities  neces- 
sary, without  doubt,  to  a  student  and  interpreter  of 
Scripture ;  but  they  lacked  that  logical  and  profound 
critical  spirit  which  is  so  essential  to  enable  him  to  ac- 
complish his  work  successfully.  They  eagerly  adopted 
the  theory  of  a  double  sense,  a  theory  which  was  in  har- 
mony with  their  mental  constitution,  and  with  their 
mystical  tendencies  ;  and  their  eminence  in  the  Church 
and  the  force  of  their  genius  gave  authority  to  it  in  the 
following  ages. 

In  our  day  we  see  many  theologians  who  are  inclined 
to  prefer  the  imagination  to  reason,  the  ingenious  to  the 
true,  the  new  to  the  useful.  The  imagination  is  some- 
times unduly  excited  by  the  study  of  theology,  especially 
when  it  treats  of  prophecies  and  miracles. 


The  Unity  of  the  Sense  of  Scripture.        49 

2.  A  moral  tendency,  or  the  absence  of  a  humble  and 
profound  love  of  the  truth. 

It  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  many  interpreters  are  not 
actuated,  above  every  other  consideration,  by  a  con- 
scientious desire  to  discover  and  possess  the  truth. 
Certain  dispositions  of  heart  unite  themselves  to  tenden- 
cies of  the  mind  and  lead  into  error.  The  want  of  logic, 
with  which  the  fathers  of  the  Church  have  been  re- 
proached, is  less  common  in  our  days ;  but  by  way  of 
compensation,  there  is  much  less  real  respect  for  the 
true  sense  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  It  is  a  common 
thing  to  meet  with  interpreters  who  are  possessed  with 
the  desire  to  dazzle  by  the  novelty  of  their  interpreta- 
tions, and  who,  wedded  to  a  system,  have  recourse  to 
forced  expositions  for  the  purpose  of  harmonizing  it 
with  embarrassing  passages.  The  theory  of  a  double 
sense  is  singularly  convenient  to  sustain  a  cherished  in- 
terpretation, without  appearing  to  deny  the  common 
one. 

3.  Religious  tendency. 

A  third  defect,  which  is  often  found  united  to  the  second, 
is  want  of  faith.  This  assertion  will,  without  doubt,  as- 
tonish many,  and  yet  it  is  not  too  severe.  When  an  in- 
terpreter of  the  Holy  Scriptures  seeks  any  other  sense 
than  that  which  naturally  presents  itself,  he  often  does 
it  because  that  sense  is  repugnant  to  his  convictions. 
He  seeks,  in  this  case,  to  evade  the  natural  sense,  and 
labors  to  replace  it  by  another  more  favorable  to  his 
views  and  tastes.  Sometimes,  like  the  ancient  Jews  of 
Alexandria,  he  is  ashamed  of  the  literal  sense  of  Script- 
ure and  endeavors  to  give  to  it  one  more  agreeable  to 
men  of  refined  wits.  He  rejects  its  severe  precepts,  the 
doctrines  which  condemn  his  system,  and  interprets 
them  in  harmony  with  it. 

In  all  these  cases  he  fails  in  love,  or  admiration,  or 


50  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

respect  for  the  Scriptures,  or  in  docility  ;  in  other  words, 
he  is  wanting  in  faith. 

Such  are  the  moral  causes,  which,  joined  to  the  Bib- 
lical facts,  of  which  we  have  spoken  above,  appear  to 
us  to  have  originated  and  promoted  the  theory  of  a 
double  sense. 

We  conclude,  therefore,  from  the  foregoing  inquiry, 
that  the  theory  of  a  multiple  sense  is  without  foundation  ; 
that  the  Scripture  has  a  sense  unique,  positive,  and 
capable  of  being  investigated.  This  being  admitted 
renders  Hermeneutics  a  possible  science. 


Natural  Division  of  Hermeneutics.         51 


SECTION    FOURTH. 

NATURAL  DIVISION  OF  HERMENEUTICS. 

§   23.    GENERAL   REFLECTIONS. 

Hermeneutics  is  the  science  which  furnishes  the 
true  principles  of  interpretation. 

To  interpret  is  to  reproduce  the  impression  produced 
by  the  author  upon  his  contemporaries;  it  is  to  repro- 
duce exactly  this  entire  impression,  with  all  its  elements, 
the  emotions  as  well  as  the  ideas. 

It  is  still  more.  It  is  to  reproduce  what  the  author 
himself  experienced  while  writing,  and  what  he  wished 
to  make  his  readers  experience. 

These  principles  are  the  basis  of  Hermeneutics,  what- 
ever may  be  the  books  interpreted. 

Biblical  Hermeneutics,  which  is  occupied  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  Bible,  does  not  differ  at  all  in  its  nature 
from  General  Hermeneutics.  It  differs  only  in  extent, 
inasmuch  as  it  does  not  aim  only  at  reproducing  the 
thought  of  the  respective  authors  of  the  Bible,  but  also 
and  principally  the  revealed  thought  of  which  they  were 
the  depositaries. 

It  is  the  aim  of  Hermeneutics  to  attain  to  this  revealed 
thought.  If  it  should  cease  its  efforts  to  this  end,  it 
would  lose  its  value  and  utility.  The  method  of  arriv- 
ing at  it  is  by  the  study  of  the  sacred  authors,  whose 
writings  are  to  be  analyzed  according  to  the  laws  of  lan- 
guage. To  accomplish  this  we  must  make  a  legitimate 
use  of  those  mental  and  moral  faculties  necessary  for 
such  labor. 


52  Biblical  Hcrmcncutics. 

The  utility  of  the  science  being  admitted,  the  question 
arises:  What  arc  its  elements,  or  constituent  parts,  upon 
which  hermeneutical  principles  are  founded,  or  from 
which  they  are  drawn  ? 

To  attain  to  a  full  interpretation  of  the  Holy  Script- 
ures, the  interpreter  must  perform  successively  different 
operations  upon  their  contents.  These  operations  we 
will  now  briefly  describe. 

§   24.   ANALYSIS   OF  THE    ELEMENTS    OF   THE    SCIENCE. 

First  step : 

The  books  to  be  interpreted  are  written  in  different 
languages.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  first  of  all,  that 
the  interpreter  should  have  an  exact  knowledge  of  the 
precise  meaning  of  the  words  and  phrases  with  which 
he  meets  in  these  languages.  After  he  has  acquired 
this  knowledge,  he  must  then  make  a  careful  elementary 
analysis  of  each  passage,  determine  it,  and  elucidate  it 
by  all  the  resources  of  philology. 

The  rules  that  guide  the  interpreter  in  this  part  of  his 
task  are  furnished  by  Sacred  Philology,  and  we  call  the 
collection  of  them  Grammatical  Hcrmcncutics. 

Second  step: 

The  sense  of  words  thus  found  will  still,  in  many  in- 
stances, have  equivocal  elements,  and  it  will  often  be 
too  vague  to  attain  fully  the  proposed  object.  Some- 
thing more,  therefore,  than  the  grammatical  sense  is 
necessary.  The  exegete  must  assure  himself  of  the  pre- 
cise ideas  which  the  sacred  writers  attached  to  the 
words,  and  of  the  minute  shades  of  these  ideas.  Two 
methods  are  required  to  accomplish  this,  the  one  a 
priori,  and  the  other  a  posteriori ;  and  these  two  meth- 
ods furnish  two  new  classes  of  rules. 

1.  A  priori. — According   to   this  method,  the  inter- 


Natural  Division  of  Hermeneutics.        53 

pretcr  inquires  about  the  influence  exercised  upon  the 
thoughts  and  expressions  of  the  writer  by  means  of  the 
circumstances  of  position,  time,  country,  and,  in  general, 
by  means  of  his  external  relations.  Rules  drawn  from 
this  source  guide  our  investigations  in  Isagogics  and 
Archaeology,  and  the  collective  body  of  them  constitutes 
Historical  Hermeneutics. 

When  the  interpreter  has  arrived  at  this  point  his  task 
will  not  be  accomplished.  Suppose  that  he  undertakes 
to  explain  the  words  of  Jesus  to  the  paralytic:  "  My  son, 
thy  sins  be  forgiven  thee "  (Mark  ii.  5),  Grammatical 
Hermeneutics  may  readily  do  its  work,  but  it  will  not 
fathom  the  depth  of  meaning  which  these  words  con- 
tain. Historical  Hermeneutics  may  show  that  our  Savi- 
our alludes  to  a  contemporary  Jewish  opinion  that  cor- 
poreal infirmities  are  the  providential  punishment  of  sin. 
It  will  reduce,  perhaps,  the  declaration  of  Christ  to  this 
idea :  "  I  deliver  thee  from  thy  infirmity  by  pardoning 
the  sin  which  has  caused  it."  Many  witnesses  of  the 
scene  could  not,  indeed,  understand  the  words  otherwise. 
But  we  ought  not  to  lower  ourselves  to  their  level,  and 
believe  that  this  pardon  of  sins,  so  often  offered  and 
granted  by  Jesus,  was  only  an  accommodation  to  a  pre- 
vailing opinion.  Is  not  something  else  necessary  to 
understand  these  words  correctly  ? 

Jesus  said  :  "  Be  ye  therefore  perfect,  even  as  your 
Father  which  is  in  heaven  is  perfect "  (Matt.  v.  48). 
Grammatical  Hermeneutics  may  search  deeply  into, 
discuss,  and  analyze  the  word  "perfect":  Historical 
Hermeneutics  may  explain  learnedly  the  origin  and 
force  of  the  title,  "  Father  which  is  in  heaven  "  ;  but 
with  all  this,  will  the  precept  of  Jesus  be  explained,  and 
will  we  acquire  its  real  value  and  the  precise  idea  ? 

For  the  purpose,  therefore,  of  arriving  at  the  com- 
plete sense  of  the  sacred  writers,  we  add  to   Historical 


54  Biblical  Hcrmeneutics. 

Hermencutics  a  posteriori  rules  deduced  from  the  Bible 
itself. 

2.  A  posteriori. — These  rules  are  deduced  from  the 
general  study  of  the  Bible,  from  the  special  study  of  its 
several  portions,  and  from  the  relations  of  these  to  the 
whole.  This  class  of  rules  we  call  Scriptural  Hcrme- 
neutics. 

By  these  different  methods  we  arrive  at  the  literal 
sense  of  the  words  and  the  precise  idea  of  the  sacred 
writers. 

But  the  science  of  Hermeneutics  is  not  yet  complete. 
A  third  step  is  necessary.  We  must  search  for  and 
determine  the  divine  revelation,  the  revealed  idea  de- 
posited in  the  chapter,  or  phrase. 

Prior  to  examination  we  can  have  no  proof  of  the 
identity  of  the  divine  and  the  human  idea.  Granting 
that  the  sacred  writers  were  inspired,  they  were  never- 
theless men  subject  to  all  the  limitations  of  humanity. 
St.  Augustine  uttered  a  profound  saying,  which  serves 
as  a  motto,  and  sums  up  the  entire  subject :  De  Deo 
homo  dixit,  et  quidem  inspiratus  a  Deo,  sed  tamen  Jwmo. 

Hence  arrives  a  new  and  grave  problem  to  be  solved, 
namely,  that  of  the  nature  and  extent  of  inspiration. 
This  part  of  our  inquiry  we  designate  Doctrinal  Herme- 
neutics. 

§25.   CONDITIONS    NECESSARY   TO    THE    PROSECUTION 
OF   THE   SCIENCE. 

Having  stated  the  different  elements  of  the  science, 
we  must  mention  a  condition  essential  to  its  successful 
prosecution.  It  is  the  dispositions  which  an  interpreter 
should  possess.  To  make  good  music  requires  some- 
thing more  than  good  musical  instruments  :  it  requires, 
in  addition  to  these,  a  skillful  musician.     In  the  same 


Natural  Division  of  Her7nene7itics.         55 

way,  something  more  than  rules  is  necessary  to  interpre- 
tation :  there  must  be  a  properly  qualified  interpreter. 
What  are  the  conditions  which  render  him  such  ?  This 
question  demands  examination. 

We  do  not  speak  of  scientific  conditions.  These  are 
taken  for  granted ;  and  the  enumeration  of  them  would 
more  appropriately  find  a  place  in  a  theological  encyclo- 
pedia than  in  Hermeneutics. 

Neither  do  we  speak  of  exegetical  conditions,  which 
apply  to  habit,  sagacity,  and  practice.  These  belong  to 
art  rather  than  to  science,  to  practical  details  rather  than 
to  general  rules,  to  Exegetics  rather  than  to  Hermeneu- 
tics. 

The  dispositions,  which  we  have  now  in  view,  are  the 
intellectual  and  moral  dispositions  of  the  interpreter,  his 
faculties  more  than  his  erudition,  his  tendencies  of  mind 
more  than  his  methods.  Hermeneutics  has,  too  long, 
neglected  to  make  account  of  these  dispositions  so  neces- 
sary to  an  interpreter.  Now  it  is  disposed  to  recognize 
their  importance.  The  investigation  of  these  conditions 
we  denominate  Psychological  Hermeneutics. 

With  this  we  begin,  as  being  the  most  important,  and 
that  which  most  nearly  concerns  the  interpreter.  The 
conditions  should  be  known  before  the  means. 


PART    FI  RST. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL  HERMENEUTICS. 

§   26.   ITS   NECESSITY. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL  Hermeneutics  is  the  investigation  of 
the  moral  and  intellectual  conditions,  devoid  of  which 
the  interpreter  is  incapable  of  accomplishing  his  task. 
The  developments  already  made,  and  those  which  shall 
yet  be  made  throughout  the  whole  of  this  treatise,  are 
sufficient  to  show  its  importance. 

One  can  not  interpret  without  understanding  that 
which  he  interprets.  This  is  a  self-evident  truth.  Now, 
to  understand  the  thought  of  another  is  so  to  conceive 
it  in  one's  own  mind  as  to  be  able  to  reproduce  it  to 
others  without  change  or  modification.  In  order  to 
this,  it  is  necessary  first  of  all  to  possess  a  variety  of 
faculties  sufficiently  developed.  According  as  these  are 
sound  or  vitiated,  exercised  or  dormant,  will  the  inter- 
preter attain  to  a  right  or  a  wrong  understanding  of  his 
subject.  This  is  not  all.  In  addition  to  these  absolute 
qualifications  he  must  possess  qualifications  relative  to 
the  author  whom  he  intends  to  interpret.  To  under- 
stand and  reproduce  the  thoughts  of  another  in  their  full 
meaning,  it  is  necessary  to  assimilate  them  and  make 
them  one's  own ;  which  supposes  in  the  interpreter  not 
only  a  variety  of  faculties  sufficiently  developed,  but 
faculties  of  the  same  order  with  those  of  the  writer.  In 
order  to  receive  and  reproduce  a  sublime  impression,  or 
a  philosophic  idea,  something  more  is  required  than  a 
grammatical  knowledge  of  the  language,  or  a  historical 
(56) 


Psychological  Hermenciitics.  57 

knowledge  of  the  times :  the  writer  must  possess  facul- 
ties specially  adapted  to  aesthetic  and  philosophical 
studies.  Will  any  one  pretend  that  the  child  who  re- 
cites the  fables  of  Fontaine  understands  them?  Will 
a  Geometer,  who  is  only  a  geometer,  easily  understand 
Racine;  or  a  peasant,  Tacitus,  or  Bossuet?  A  Newton 
or  a  La  Place  would  be  a  poor  commentator  on  Homer 
or  Milton. 

This  is  still  more  evident  in  regard  to  the  religious 
than  it  is  in  regard  to  the  literary  intelligence ;  for  relig- 
ious truths  and  feelings  constitute  a  special  sphere,  into 
which  the  soul  must  enter  and  live  in  order  to  under- 
stand them.  The  man  who  has  neither  experience  in 
these  things,  nor  taste  for  them,  mistakes  their  import 
and  falls  into  error.  How  many  Biblical  commentaries 
there  are  sparkling  with  genius  and  replete  with  knowl- 
edge, but  from  which  very  little  profit  is  to  be  derived, 
because  they  lack  that  good  religious  sense  which  is 
born  of  the  habit  of  applying  religion  to  the  life.  As 
loni;  as  the  critical  faculty  and  erudition  suffice,  the  au- 
thor appears  an  eminent  exegete  ;  but  when  a  question  of 
experience  and  of  religious  feeling  presents  itself,  through 
the  want  of  common  sense  and  piety,  he  either  disfigures, 
or  entirely  misses  the  meaning  of  the  simplest  teachings. 

How  much  importance,  then,  ought  the  theologian 
worthy  of  the  name,  to  attach  to  that  internal  capacity, 
to  that  state  of  intelligence  and  of  soul,  which  can  either 
open  to  him  or  close  the  doors  of  truth,  which  can 
breathe  life  into  his  work,  or  blight  it  with  death. 

The  normal  condition,  which  we  require  of  the  inter- 
preter of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  appears  to  us  to  be  com- 
posed of  faculties,  tendencies  or  dispositions,  and  principles. 

We  can  give  in  this  treatise  only  a  rapid  and  imperfect 
sketch  of  the  points  that  are  most  important  and  most 
neglected. 


58  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


SECTION    FIRST. 

FACULTIES   WITH   WHICH    THE    INTERPRETER 
SHOULD   BE   ENDOWED. 

§   27.   INTELLECTUAL  FACULTIES. 

The  interpreter  has  need  of  a  clear  and  vigorous  un- 
derstanding, and  of  a  sound  judgment.  Without  judg- 
ment he  can  not  discriminate  between  truth  and  false- 
hood ;  and  without  truth  his  labor  will  fail  of  any  good 
result. 

Without  judgment  science  is  only  a  snare  to  the  inter- 
preter, who,  in  that  case,  resembles  a  lawyer  that  en- 
tangles himself  scientifically  in  the  application  of  the 
clearest  laws. 

The  exegete  has,  moreover,  need  of  imagination,  but 
under  proper  control.  To  symbolize  this  the  Greeks 
represented  Pegasus  with  a  bridle  as  well  as  with  wings. 
The  language  of  Scripture  is  strongly  colored :  the  style 
is  loaded  with  images.  It  was  addressed  directly  to 
readers  accustomed  to  the  language  of  poetry,  and  ha- 
bituated to  call  in  the  aid  of  imagination,  in  order  to  ex- 
press even  religious  and  abstract  truth.  The  cold  and 
learned  theologian,  who  analyzes  this  language  as  a 
formula,  is  often  deceived,  and  sometimes  grievously. 
He  resembles  a  blind  man  who  discourses  upon  colors. 
However,  if  a  certain  degree  of  imagination  is  necessary 
to  the  exegete,  the  excess  of  it  is  pernicious,  for  it  de- 
stroys the  judgment.  Good  sense  should,  at  all  times, 
be  his  ruling  and  regulative  faculty — a  faculty  which 
leaves  to  the  other  faculties  a  sufficient,  but  limited, 


The  Interpreter  s  Mental  Endowment.       59 

field  of  action.  The  excess  of  imagination  is,  peihaps, 
more  to  be  feared  in  religious  science  than  elsewhere, 
because  this  science  tends  to  exalt  this  faculty.  Upon 
each  page  the  Bible  presents  to  the  theologian  for  ex- 
amination the  supernatural  and  the  mysterious.  Hence 
it  calls  his  imagination  into  play,  and  invites  him  to 
have  recourse  to  it ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  it  exposes 
him  to  serious  errors,  unless  he  knows  how  to  regulate 
it.  In  this,  as  always  and  everywhere,  that  which  is  use- 
ful to  the  theologian  is  the  equilibrium  of  all  his  facul- 
ties, rather  than  the  excessive  and  isolated  development 
of  a  few. 

§   28.    MORAL  FACULTIES. 

What  we  have  just  said  of  the  imagination  is  equally 
true  of  the  sensibility.  This  should  not  predominate 
over  the  intelligence.  It  can  not  legitimate  an  interpre- 
tation ;  but  it  is  indispensable  to  the  interpreter ;  for 
without  it,  he  is  incapable  of  understanding  many  things. 
At  least  he  can  understand  them  only  imperfectly ;  and 
he  will  notice,  as  obscure,  vague,  or  unimportant,  perhaps 
the  richest  instructions,  even  such  as,  addressed  to  the 
sensibility,  were  intended  to  produce  upon  the  reader  the 
most  powerful  and  decisive  impression. 

There  are  many  passages  of  Scripture  which  present  a 
good  sense  only  on  the  condition  of  their  being  felt,  sub- 
lime when  they  affect  the  heart,  but  absurd  when  logic 
alone  analyzes  them.  Job  exclaims,  in  a  transport  of 
confidence,  "  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him  " 
(xiii.  15).  Here  we  have  a  proposition  logically  absurd: 
it  is  a  cry  of  the  heart,  and  as  such  it  is  sublime.  The 
epistles  of  Paul  are  understood  only  when  we  seek  the 
train  of  the  emotions  along  with  that  of  the  ideas.  As 
long  as  we  deduce  from  them  only  formulas,  the}'  often 
appear  obscure  and  confused  ;  but  when  we  seek  for  the 


60  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

movements,  the  struggles,  and  the  outpourings  of  a  lov- 
ing soul  torn  with  anguish,  we  discover  new  and  precious 
treasures. 

And  the  Psalms,  the  book  of  suffering,  loving,  and 
penitent  souls — the  Psalms,  an  admirable  monument  of 
an  all-embracing  piety,  which  embellishes  nature,  charms 
life,  alleviates  grief,  transforms  afflictions,  and  unites  the 
soul  to  God,  how  can  they  be  understood,  and  what  can 
we  make  of  them,  if  we  reduce  them  to  logical  formulas, 
and  neglect,  in  the  interpretation  of  them,  to  consult  our 
own  hearts  and  the  heart  of  the  royal  prophet  ? 

The  Scriptures  were  evidently  written  as  much  for  the 
heart  as  for  the  intellect.  God  intended  this,  and  for 
reasons  easy  to  be  understood.  He  intended  them  not 
only  for  enlightened  men,  for  men  of  logical  ability  and 
accustomed  to  investigation,  not  for  theologians  only, 
but  for  all  classes  of  men,  for  men  of  every  nation  and  of 
every  degree  of  intelligence.  He  intended  them  to  be 
the  nourishment  and  the  consolation  of  the  weak  in  in- 
tellect and  of  the  young,  to  furnish  instruction  for  the 
ignorant,  and  to  be  the  inheritance  of  the  poor.  In  a 
word,  He  intended  that  they  should  be  addressed  to  the 
most  numerous  and  the  most  unhappy  portion  of  the 
human  race.  Now,  in  this  mass,  how  many  are  there 
who  are  capable  of  attaining  to  a  logical  understanding 
of  the  Scriptures?  Very  few.  How  many,  on  the  con- 
trary, are  capable  of  feeling  their  power,  and  of  receiving 
from  them,  by  the  aid  of  the  sensibility,  a  just  and 
strong,  though  vague  and  incomplete,  impression  ?  It  is 
safe  to  say,  nearly  all.  The  friends  of  humanity  ought, 
therefore,  to  thank  God  for  addressing  His  word  es- 
pecially to  hearts  susceptible  of  feeling  and  emotion. 
The  interpreter,  then,  should,  in  order  to  accomplish  the 
duties  of  his  office,  possess  sensibility.  He  should  seek 
the  aid  of  his  heart,  and  not  bind  himself  slavishly  to  the 
requirements  of  logic. 


Dispositions  Necessary  to  the  hitcrpretcr.     61 

SECTION   SECOND. 

DISPOSITIONS  NECESSARY  TO  THE   INTERPRETER. 

§   29.   LOVE   OF   TRUTH. 

FACULTIES  are  natural  gifts,  which  the  theologian  can 
and  ought  to  develop.  The  germ  of  these  he  received 
at  his  birth.  We  specify  here  the  dispositions  which  he 
ought  to  cultivate,  and  which  are  necessary  to  him. 

The  first  is  the  love  of  truth. 

In  order  to  discover  the  truth  it  is  necessary  to  seek 
for  it ;  in  order  to  obtain  it,  we  must  love  it,  and  love  it 
in  preference  to  every  speculative  theory,  to  every  inter- 
est of  the  heart  and  of  the  life. 

The  interpreter  must  be  animated  to  the  pursuit  of  it 
as  to  that  of  a  noble  object  and  a  holy  work.  He  should 
regard  his  responsibility  with  a  feeling  blended  with  fear 
and  respect  and  impose  silence  upon  his  passions  in  the 
presence  of  his  high  ministry.  Only  piety  and  faith  can 
give  him  this  disposition  in  a  sufficient  degree ;  but  he 
ought,  at  the  very  start,  to  place  himself  on  guard  against 
three  elements  of  error  incompatible  with  sincere  love  of 
truth. 

(1).  We  specify  first,  attachment  to  preconceived  opin- 
ions, which,  instead  of  guiding  and  shaping  our  investi- 
gations, should  be  kept  in  abeyance.  The  interpreter 
should,  if  possible,  undertake  the  task  of  interpretation 
without  preconceived  opinions ;  but,  as  that  can  not  be 
done,  he  should,  at  least,  subject  such  opinions  to  the 
special  result  of  his  interpretation  legitimately  deduced 
from  the  Scriptures.     He  should  be  desirous  above  all 


62  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

to  discover  the  truth,  and  disposed  to  modify  his  ideas 
in  accordance  with  the  result  of  his  examination. 

The  exegete  sits  down  to  read  and  to  analyze  an  epis- 
tle of  St.  Paul.  No  one  can,  nor  ought  to,  demand  of 
him  to  come  to  this  task,  without  a  conviction  of  the 
fundamental  doctrines  of  natural  religion  and  of  the 
Christian  faith,  and  even  of  the  inspired  authority  of  St. 
Paul ;  but  he  ought  to  forget,  as  far  as  possible,  during 
his  work,  the  opinions  that  he  has  already  formed  of  the 
Apostle  and  of  his  epistle,  in  order  to  elicit  sincerely,  by 
a  conscientious  and  philosophic  interpretation  of  it,  all 
that  it  can  teach  him. 

This  disposition  is  rare.  Moreover,  it  is  scarcely  ever 
seriously  enough  applied,  or  judiciously  enough  regu- 
lated. Some  exaggerate  it  by  demanding,  under  the 
name  of  impartiality,  a  complete  skepticism ;  though  all 
that  can  be  required  of  the  exegete  is  a  conscientious 
examination  of  the  doctrine  of  the  author  that  occupies 
his  attention.  Others,  by  far  the  greatest  number,  neg- 
lect it  and  are  decided,  in  advance,  upon  what  they  wish 
to  find. 

Facts  prove  this  in  the  most  sad  and  decisive  manner, 
since  religious  denominations,  holding  doctrines  the 
most  opposite,  put  forward,  with  the  utmost  sincerity, 
their  respective  creeds  as  the  only  true  summaries  of 
Scriptural  doctrine.  Philosophical  sects  do  the  same 
thing,  at  least  those  which  do  not  place  themselves  out 
of  the  pale  of  Christianity.  The  disciples  of  Plato,  of 
Aristotle,  of  Locke,  of  Descartes,  of  Hegel,  and  of  St. 
Martin,  all  endeavor  to  show  that  they  have  the  true 
sense  of  Scripture.  Was  it  not,  at  least  at  first,  in  the 
name  of  Scripture  that  the  modern  Socialists  attacked 
society,  the  family,  and  the  faith  ? 

(2).  To  impartiality  of  mind  the  interpreter  should 
join  impartiality  of  heart.     If  preconceived  opinions  op- 


Dispositions  Necessary  to  the  Interpreter.     63 

pose  obstacles  to  honesty  of  examination,  strong  feel- 
ings of  interest  present  obstacles  equally  strong.  The 
fear  of  man,  the  prejudices  of  the  Church  and  of  society, 
the  desire  of  reputation  and  of  glory  destroy  the  love  of 
truth.  How  frequent  is  this  evil.  How  many  vision- 
ary hypotheses  have  had  their  origin  in  the  desire  of 
occupying  some  conspicuous  place  in  some  learned  uni- 
versity. 

A  sincere  desire  to  be  the  servant  of  truth  is  necessary 
to  the  discovery  of  it.  This  noble  desire  should  put  to 
silence  all  others.  The  scholar  who  studies,  the  Chris- 
tian who  examines,  and  the  ecclesiastic  who  teaches, 
have  each  a  responsibility  from  which  the  pure  love  of 
truth  alone  can  release  them.  This  triple  responsibility 
the  theologian  who  interprets  incurs  in  all  its  extent. 

If  there  is  anything  humiliating  to  criticism  and  the- 
ology, it  is  that  this  responsibility  is  sometimes  so  im- 
perfectly understood.  Let  the  student  ponder  it  deeply 
beforehand,  and  contemplate  his  future  career  less  from 
the  point  of  view  of  his  interests  than  from  that  of  his 
duties. 

(3).  The  work  of  the  interpreter  is  not  only  vitiated 
in  its  source  by  opinions  previously  and  obstinately 
formed,  or  by  opposite  interests ;  it  is  also  vitiated,  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  by  all  the  moral  defects  of  the 
heart.  The  interpreter  should  be  not  only  impartial  and 
disinterested,  but  also,  so  far  as  corrupt  human  nature 
will  allow,  morally  perfect.  This  statement  may  occa- 
sion surprise;  but  the  least  reflection  will  show  that  the 
heart  always  influences  the  mind,  and  that  defects  of 
the  former  cause  imperfections  in  the  latter.  The  proud 
man  will  not  easily  renounce  his  opinions  when  proved 
to  be  untenable.  He  will  not  be  impartial,  and  will 
zealously  seek  for  discoveries  which  he  expected  to 
make.     The  egotist  will  fail  in  sensibility,  and  will  form 


64  Biblical  HermcnetUics. 

a  very  imperfect  idea  of  the  emotional  in  Scripture. 
The  low,  interested,  vicious,  degraded  man  will  always 
see  through  a  veil  of  flesh  and  blood. 

How  important  is  it,  therefore,  that  the  interpreter 
should  labor  to  purify  his  soul  and  raise  it  to  the  height 
of  Christian  virtue,  in  order  to  attain  to  the  true  dignity 
of  his  task — a  task  fearful  in  its  responsibility,  but  noble 
and  exalted. 

§  30.  SEARCH  FOR  CLEAR  IDEAS. 

The  second  disposition  required  of  the  interpreter  is 
the  desire  to  acquire  clear  ideas.  He  needs  them  and 
must  use  effort  to  attain  them. 

Every  man  of  intelligence,  be  he  student  or  scholar, 
pupil  or  teacher,  advances  toward  his  object  only 
by  enlarging  the  extent  of  his  ideas,  and  by  acquir- 
ing clearness  of  them.  The  means  to  attain  clearness  is 
study.  As  we  have  said  in  regard  to  truth,  in  order  to 
obtain  this  clearness  of  ideas  we  must  love  it  and  seek 
after  it.  The  man  who  does  not  make  it  his  duty  and 
does  not  employ  his  energy  to  secure  it,  will  be  con- 
tented with  appearances,  with  phrases,  with  formulas, 
with  confused  theories,  that  is  to  say,  with  errors. 

In  the  moral  and  metaphysical  sciences  this  danger  is 
greater  than  in  the  physical  and  experimental  sciences. 
The  former  do  not  possess,  like  the  latter,  material  facts, 
visible  and  repeated  experiments  to  serve  as  tests ;  hence 
shallow  minds  are  much  more  liable  to  take,  in  the  for- 
mer, the  appearance  for  the  reality,  and  words  for  things. 
This  fault  is  very  common  in  the  moral  and  metaphysical 
sciences.  Nowhere  is  clearness  of  idea  more  rare,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  more  necessary. 

These  considerations  are  still  more  applicable  to  The- 
ology, especially  to  Biblical  Theology,  than  to  any  of 


Dispositio7is  Necessary  to  the  Interpreter.     65 

the  sciences  just  mentioned.  Here,  as  the  truth  pertains 
to  a  supernatural  and  mysterious  order  of  things,  and, 
consequently,  obscure,  it  is  more  necessary,  than  in  other 
sciences,  to  endeavor  to  have  clear  ideas  of  the  matters 
which  come  under  consideration.  The  sensibility  and 
the  imagination  exercise,  and  ought  to  exercise,  such  an 
influence  upon  interpretation  as  sometimes  to  evade  this 
keen  scent  of  logic.  In  short,  personal  interests,  passions, 
and  strifes,  very  often  intimately  concern  the  results  to 
be  obtained.  Hence  arises  frequently  and  inevitably 
the  temptation  to  make  use  of  formulas  in  default  of 
ideas,  in  order  to  disguise  or  modify  these  results. 

No  one  can  deny  that  many  theologians  have  erred 
much  in  this  respect.  In  the  different  hermeneutical 
applications,  and  especially  in  ancient  dogmatics,  there 
are  a  great  many  arguments  and  interpretations  which 
are  only  formulas  traditionally  handed  down  from  former 
centuries,  and  which  contain  no  positive  nor  distinct 
idea.  They  do  not  enlighten  the  understanding  in  any- 
thing. Their  words  can  neither  be  changed  nor  com- 
mented upon  without  losing  their  import.  Nevertheless 
they  are  generally  received,  because  they  are  convenient 
and  dispense  with  thought,  doubt,  and  close  attention. 
Some  of  the  theological  formulas  employed  to  explain 
the  mysterious  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  of  the  con- 
stitution of  the  Person  of  Christ,  are  of  this  kind. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  interpreter  never  to  be  contented 
with  purely  traditional  words,  but  to  pursue  his  medita- 
tion until  he  has  associated  a  positive  idea  with  such 
words  as  he  decides  to  employ.  This  statement  is  not 
intended  to  imply  that  he  can  arrive  at  the  possession  of 
clear  ideas  upon  everything  which  pertains  to  religion, 
for  the  nature  of  man,  as  well  as  that  of  God,  precludes 
this.  All  that  is  meant  is  that  his  words  should  always 
express,  without  ambiguity,  a  real  idea.     He  should  un- 


56  Biblical  Hermc?te?ctics. 

derstand  clearly  everything  which  he  declares  to  be  clear, 
and  everything  which  he  pretends  to  explain  by  a  precise 
formula ;  and  he  should  declare  positively  obscure  that 
which  remains  obscure.  In  those  matters  of  religion 
which  surpass  intelligence,  he  ought  to  comprehend 
clearly  the  fact  that  they  do  surpass  it ;  also  in  what 
they  surpass  it,  and  in  what  they  do  not  surpass  it.  The 
fact  that  they  surpass  our  intelligence  should  not  hinder 
us  from  believing  them,  for  while  we  can  not  believe 
what  is  contrary  to  reason,  we  can  and  do  believe  many 
things  that  are  above  it. 

§   31.   FAITH   AND   PIETY. 

The  interpreter,  in  order  to  accomplish  his  task  well, 
has  need  of  faith  and  piety.  Let  us  explain  this  state- 
ment. 

It  does  not  mean  that  the  interpreter,  in  order  to  un- 
derstand the  Bible  and  exhibit  its  meaning,  must  be  en- 
lightened by  the  Holy  Spirit ;  so  that,  in  fault  of  this 
supernatural  illumination,  the  Bible  would  be  a  sealed 
book  calculated  to  blind  and  harden.  On  this  hypothe- 
sis there  would  be  no  place  for  the  human  faculties  ;  no 
religious  examination  would  be  possible  and  legitimate  ; 
there  would  be  no  motive  to  distribute  the  Bible  abroad  ; 
and  consequently  no  Hermeneutics  to  study. 

But  it  does  mean  that,  in  order  to  apprehend  the  con- 
tents of  the  Bible,  in  order  to  elucidate  its  difficulties,  in 
order  to  find  the  key  to  obscure  passages,  and  thus  to 
accomplish  fully  the  task  of  interpretation,  the  interpre- 
ter must  have  already  known,  felt,  and  examined  with 
pleasure  and  success  the  prominent  characteristics  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  derived  from  them  the  sentiment  of  the 
beauty,  the  sanctity,  and  divinity  of  his  work.  The  sci- 
ence of  Apologetics,  when  complete,  ought  to  be  a  re- 


Dispositions  Necessary  to  the  Interpreter.     67 

suit  of  Hermeneutics.  The  former  can  not  precede  the 
latter.  While  this  is  true,  Hermeneutics,  on  the  other 
hand,  can  be  complete  only  by  the  aid  of  Apologetics. 
Between  the  proofs  furnished  by  Apologetics  and  Her- 
meneutics there  should  be  a  constant  action  and  reaction, 
and  thus  there  will  be  a  continual  and  simultaneous 
progress  of  both  sciences. 

1.  A  religious  conviction  is  often  logically  necessary 
to  interpretation  ;  not  a  particular  conviction  of  such 
and  such  a  doctrine,  but  a  general  conviction  of  the 
attributes  of  God  and  of  the  authentic  and  divine  origin 
of  the  Bible.  According  as  we  believe  that  God  is  holy, 
we  will  choose  the  one  or  the  other  of  the  opposite  in- 
terpretations of  such  or  such  a  passage.  According  as 
we  are,  or  not  disposed  to  accept  Jesus  Christ  as  the 
Saviour  of  the  world,  we  will  receive  His  discourses  with 
the  spirit  of  the  apostles,  or  with  that  of  the  Pharisees. 
Without  doubt,  it  would  be  better,  viewing  the  matter 
from  a  purely  intellectual  and  logical  point  of  view,  as 
we  have  already  said,  that  the  interpreter  should  have 
no  preconceived  opinions ;  but  as  this  is  intellectually 
and  morally  impossible,  he  must  have  a  judicious,  stable 
intellect,  exempt  from  all  selfish  influences,  fully  capable 
of,  and  prepared  for,  philosophical  investigation.  This 
condition  can  not  be  dispensed  with  in  the  interpreter. 

2.  More  than  intelligence  is  required  in  order  to  un- 
derstand the  Bible.  Religious  sensibility  is  also  neces- 
sary. This  alone  can  place  the  interpreter  in  complete 
harmony  with  the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  the  author. 
Piety  has  its  own  language,  which  a  stranger  to  it  can 
not  understand.  It  can  only  be  understood  by  experi- 
encing pious  emotions.  Where  pious  hearts  find  ideas, 
knowledge,  emotions,  and  sources  of  conviction,  cold  and 
worldly  hearts  find  only  inexplicable  words,  which  they 
reject  with  disdain,  after  having  vainly  endeavored  to 


68  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


penetrate  into  their  sense.  How  can  an  emotion  or  a 
joy  be  explained  to  one  who  has  never  felt  it?  How 
can  a  science  be  rendered  intelligible,  to  a  man  who  does 
not  even  apprehend  its  object  ?  How  can  a  blind  man 
understand  colors  ?  How  can  a  sensual  and  avaricious 
materialist  appreciate  the  Psalms  or  St.  John  ? 

3.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  characteristics  of  the 
Bible  is  the  wonderful  and  profound  accord  which  reigns 
between  its  teachings,  its  precepts,  and  the  wants  and 
sorrows  of  the  human  heart.  The  heart  of  man  is  at 
once  the  complement,  the  commentary,  and  the  key  of 
the  Bible.  How,  then,  can  it  be  understood,  explained 
in  its  details,  and  appreciated  in  its  entirety  by  one  who 
is  not  in  the  habit  of  living  with  it,  and  of  entering  into 
its  heart,  who,  a  stranger  to  religious  thoughts,  is  un- 
conscious of  his  moral  maladies,  and  ignorant  of  him- 
self? 

We  must  not,  however,  forget  the  real  inconveniences 
which  beset  the  interpreter,  who  has  already  commenced 
to  expound  the  Scriptures,  and  to  expound  them  in  a 
certain  sense,  for  the  purpose  of  being  able  to  advance 
in  his  work,  and  not  remain  lost  in  chaos.  There  is 
always  a  danger  of  not  being  rigorously  impartial ;  but, 
as  we  have  said,  no  interpreter  can  attain  to  such  a  state 
of  mind.  There  is  always  a  danger  of  deciding  in  accord- 
ance with  one's  internal  and  individual  experiences ;  but 
it  is  thus  only  that  the  interpretation  of  the  Bible  can 
be  complete  and  applied  to  life.  There  is  this  danger ; 
it  is  inevitable  and  universal,  and  explains  the  great 
variety  of  interpretations.  If  one  can  not  remove  this 
evil,  he  can,  at  least,  diminish  it :  (a)  by  determining  his 
own  religious  convictions  by  a  profound,  complete,  re- 
peated, and  varied  self-examination  ;  (b)  by  striving  to 
forget,  in  the  act  of  biblical  interpretation,  his  own  relig- 
ious sentiments.     He  must  impose  silence,  for  the  time, 


Dispositions  Necessary  to  the  Interpreter.     69 

upon  his  will,  his  desires,  and  preconceived  opinions,  in 
order  to  perform,  with  the  utmost  conscientiousness  and 
sincerity,  the  hermeneutical  examination  of  each  pas- 
sage. 

To  sum  up :  The  irreligious  interpreter  is  morally 
unfit  for  the  task  of  biblical  interpretation.  The  re- 
ligious interpreter  is  exposed  to  the  danger  of  deceiving 
himself.  The  duty  which  Hcrmeneutics  imposes  is  not 
simply  scientific  and  logical :  it  is  principally  moral.  The 
interpreter  must  be  conscientious,  circumspect,  and  labo- 
rious. He  ought  constantly  to  mistrust  his  passions  and 
opinions,  and  also  be  diffident  of  his  ability  and  even  of 
his  success. 


jo  Biblical  Hcrmeneutics. 


SECTION   THIRD. 

DUTIES  OF  THE   INTERPRETER. 

A  WORD,  before  concluding,  upon  the  point  from 
which  the  interpreter  ought  to  consider  his  task,  or  upon 
the  nature  and  extent  of  the  examination  which  he  un- 
dertakes. 

§  32.  THIS  EXAMINATION  OUGHT  TO  EMBRACE  THE 
ENTIRE  BIBLE  AND  TO  BE  FREQUENTLY  RE- 
PEATED. 

The  more  delicate  and  difficult  the  hermeneutical 
task  is,  the  greater  responsibility  it  imposes  upon  the 
interpreter,  the  more  imperative  is  his  duty  to  attain  to 
a  knowledge  of  the  whole  Bible,  and  to  examine  pro- 
foundly into  its  meaning.  Unless  he  does  this,  he  will 
be  much  more  exposed  to  the  influence  of  selfish  inter- 
ests and  of  preconceived  opinions  than  he  would  other- 
wise be.  It  is  this  labor  alone  that  will  make  the  inter- 
preter acquainted  with  the  spirit  of  the  Bible,  the  suc- 
cessive progress  of  its  teachings,  the  special  character- 
istics and  relative  value  of  its  different  parts,  its  general 
character,  and  the  purposes  of  God  in  revelation. 

Every  theologian  ought  to  be  an  exegete.  But  many 
read  and  study  only  certain  portions  of  the  Bible.  Some 
confine  their  reading  and  meditations  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Many  read  superficially,  without  stopping  to 
examine  and  elucidate  obscure  passages.  Many  neglect 
the  original  texts.  Hence  mutual  recrimination  in  re- 
gard to  vagueness  of  ideas.      They  are  guided  in  the 


Duties  of  the  Interpreter.  71 

adoption  of  their  opinions  more  by  circumstances,  edu- 
cation, and  authority,  than  by  independent  examination. 

This  examination  ought,  moreover,  to  be  continued 
throughout  life.  In  proportion  as  one  advances  in  age, 
psychological  data,  the  experience  of  society,  and  posi- 
tive knowledge,  present  themselves  under  new  aspects ; 
and,  accumulating,  modify  and  increase  the  resources  of 
the  interpreter,  and  furnish  him  with  the  means  of 
renewing  the  examination  with  increased  advantage. 
Moreover,  if  this  examination  were  ever  interrupted, 
its  results  would  be  obliterated  from  the  heart  and  mem- 
ory ;  faith  in  the  Bible,  rendered  inoperative  by  the 
cares  of  life,  would  become  vague  and  incoherent.  Med- 
itation and  constant  study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  are 
absolutely  necessary  to  refresh,  nourish,  and  render 
clear,  vivid,  and  fruitful  the  knowledge  and  religious 
convictions  of  the  theologian.  These  are  his  daily  food, 
just  as  necessary  to  his  soul  and  his  faith  as  bread  is  to 
his  body. 

Can  there  be,  then,  any  need  of  directing  attention  to 
the  importance  of  this  complete  and  constant  examina- 
tion of  the  Scriptures,  in  relation  to  the  other  duties  of 
the  theologian,  to  Apologetics,  to  the  pastoral  functions, 
to  preaching  ? 

§  33.  THIS  EXAMINATION  OUGHT  TO  BE  MADE  WITH 
DISTRUST  OF  ONE'S  SELF  AND  WITH  A  FEELING 
OF   ONE'S   OWN   WEAKNESS. 

This  is  evident,  since  the  interpreter  is  liable  to  be 
deceived  through  the  imperfection  of  his  faculties,  the 
limitation  of  his  knowledge,  and  the  bent  of  his  disposi- 
tions. What  diversities  do  we  find  in  the  results  to 
which  Hermencutics  conducts  different  theologians  ;  and 
consequently  what  errors  —  errors  not  only  on  the  part 
of  men  of  moderate  ability,  but  on  that  of  men  whose 


J  2  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

ability  is  universally  acknowledged.  Where  is  the  critic 
so  eminent;  who  has  not  sometimes,  in  spite  of  his 
science  and  sagacity,  fallen  into  some  strange  and  unex- 
pected mistake  ?  What  scientific  motives,  therefore,  has 
the  judicious  theologian  to  regard  with  jealousy  his 
methods  and  results ;  and  what  motives  of  duty  and 
piety  has  he  to  fear  presumption,  which,  painful  to  say, 
is  too  common. 

The  theologian  ought,  while  preparing  himself  for  the 
interpretation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  to  consider  his 
task  carefully  not  only  from  a  scientific,  but  also  and 
chiefly  from  a  moral  and  religious  point  of  view.  He  is 
charged  with  the  duty  of  interpreting  a  book,  the  reposi- 
tory of  Divine  truth,  in  which  are  found  many  obscure 
passages.  On  the  success  of  his  labor  may  depend  the 
faith,  the  conduct,  and  salvation  of  his  readers.  And 
while  charged  with  such  a  weighty  responsibility  he  must 
keep  in  mind  that  he  is  only  a  man,  subject  to  all  the 
limitations,  passions,  and  imperfections  of  humanity. 
Errors,  he  knows,  are  almost  inevitable ;  and  every  error 
may  be  followed  by  grave  consequences.  If  he  gives  a 
too  absolute  character  to  occasional  precepts,  he  attrib- 
utes human  thoughts  to  God.  If  he  forgets  the  uni- 
versal and  absolute  character  of  Divine  teachings,  he 
mutilates  the  Divine  thought,  and  changes  the  com- 
mandments of  God. 

Such  is  the  position,  such  ought  to  be  the  mental  and 
moral  qualifications  of  the  interpreter  of  the  Holy  Script- 
ures. His  task  should  be  begun,  continued,  and  ended 
with  prayer ;  and  it  should  be  conducted  with  constant 
vigilance. 

Luther  said,  Oratio,  weditatio,  tcntatio  f admit  tJicolo- 
gum.  We  say  the  same.  Prayer,  study,  and  experience 
will  aid  the  interpreter  to  accomplish  his  task,  so  far  as 
it  depends  upon  human  ability. 


PART    SECOND. 

GRAMMATICAL  HERMENEUTICS. 

The  interpreter  should  begin  his  work  by  studying 
the  grammatical  sense  of  the  text,  with  the  aid  of  Sacred 
Philology.  As  in  all  other  writings,  the  grammatical 
sense  must  be  made  the  starting-point.  The  meaning 
of  the  words  must  be  determined  according  to  the  lin- 
guistic usage  and  the  connection.  The  several  particu- 
lars comprehended  under  this  branch  of  our  subject 
now  require  consideration. 

I.—  DIFFICULTIES. 
§  34.   NATURE   OF  THE   TASK. 

This  task  is  far  from  being  so  easy  as  it  might,  at  first, 
appear.  To  determine,  with  accuracy,  an  important, 
abstract,  and  complex  idea,  without  other  aid  than  the 
science  of  language,  is  a  task  the  difficulty  of  which  is 
known  only  to  those  who  have  conscientiously  attempt- 
ed it.  This  difficulty  will  be  manifest  when  we  consider 
that  the  meaning  of  words  is  often  uncertain,  compli- 
cated, and  vague. 

Every  dictionary,  it  is  true,  professes  to  give  the  sense 
of  words.  But  the  interpreter  would  not  be  materially 
aided  even  by  an  infallible  dictionary,  for  he  needs  not 
the  general  sense  of  a  word  so  much  as  its  precise  im- 
port, with  its  shades  of  meaning  and  its  degree  of  in- 
tensity. He  is  in  need  of  the  sense  of  a  word  in  a  given 
passage,  determined,  it  may  be,  by  a  certain  occasion, 
4  (73) 


74  Biblical  Her?ue7ietitics. 

by  certain  circumstances  of  place,  and  by  the  individual- 
ity of  the  author.  Now  this  is  what  is  difficult  to  be 
determined,  and  usually  difficult  in  proportion  to  the 
importance  of  the  meaning.  We  deem  some  illustrations 
of  this  difficulty  necessary. 

§35-     WANT   OF   SUFFICIENT   ANALOGY   BETWEEN    LAN- 
GUAGES. 

There  is  seldom  an  identity  of  sense  between  the  cor- 
responding words  of  different  languages ;  between  the 
English  word,  for  example,  and  the  corresponding 
Hebrew  word,  the  Greek  word  and  its  representative  in 
Latin,  or  any  other  language.  This  is  evident  even  in 
regard  to  words  of  those  languages  which  are  derived 
the  one  from  the  other.  "Emperor,"  "tyrant,"  "to 
exterminate,"  are  the  literal  translations  of  "  Imperator," 
"Ti'jpawoS,"  and  "  exterminare,"  from  which  they  are 
derived.  The  distinctions  in  sense,  however,  between 
them  and  their  derivatives  are  known  to  all. 

We  meet  with  the  same  thing  in  the  principle  the- 
ological terms.     trilby    @£o$,  and  "God  "  are  far  from 

being   expressive   of   the  same   idea.      E^bi*    is  used 

when  speaking  of  the  Being  who  commands  reverence, 
because  He  surpasses  all  others  in  power  and  grandeur. 
The  Old  Testament  employs  the  term  when  speaking 
not  only  of  the  true  God,  but  of  angels  (Ps.  viii.  6,  etc.), 
and  of  magistrates  (Ps.  Ixxxii.  6,  etc.)  ©so?,  unlike 
Q^fib&j  etymologically  expresses  a  physical,  instead  of  a 

moral,  idea,  and,  like  it,  is  not  exclusively  applied  to  the 
true  God  in  the  Scriptures. 

John  x.  34,  35,  and  1  Cor.  viii.  5,  prove  this.  The  refer- 
ences of  the  first  Greek  Fathers  to  the  divinity  of  the 
Saviour   furnish    additional    proof.     Thus   Clement    of 


Grammatical  Hermeneutics.  75 

Alexandria  says :  (Strom  vii.)  tovtco  itaaa  vitoTzroniTcu. 
arpcxria  ylyy^Acov  re  nai  Qeaov.  To  the  same  effect 
Origen  (Vol.  II.  in  Job.)  developing  the  idea  of  7tpooro- 
roKOi  applied  to  Jesus  Christ :  Ti/.iiooT€po?  roJi  Xoi7ro7? 
nap  avrov  SeofS,  cav  6  Qeo5  Beoi  iari,  nara  to  Xzyoj-ie- 
vov.     Geo?  Secov  nvpiot  sXaXijffe,  etc. 

As  to  the  English  word  God — "  the  Good  " — it  indi- 
cates, without  equivocation,  the  supreme  divinity  when- 
ever it  is  not  used  in  accommodation  to  Pagan  theories 
and  to  metaphors  which  owe  their  origin  to  them. 

§  36.   VARIATIONS   IN   THE   SENSE   OF  WORDS. 

Diversities  of  sense  exist  not  only  between  the  corre- 
sponding words  in  different  languages,  but  also  between 
the  different  modes  of  employing  the  same  words  in  the 
same  languages,  especially  in  the  biblical  languages. 

1.  These  variations  often  pertain  to  the  abstract, 
vague,  or  mysterious  sense  of  certain  expressions.  As 
examples,  we  mention  7cio~TiS  and  \6yoS,  which  we  will 
have  occasion  to  study  hereafter.  Further  examples  of 
this  variation  may  be  found  in  ftvxt},  which  sometimes 
indicates  the  life  of  the  body  (Luke  vi.  9;  John  xii.  25, 
etc.),  sometimes  the  scat  of  the  animal  appetites  (1 
Thess.  v.  23,  etc.,  comp.  James  iii.  15),  and  sometimes 
the  immortal  and  redeemed  soul  (James  i.  21,  v.  20) ;  in 
nv£vi.iot,  which  unites  the  idea  of  wind  with  that  of  res- 
piration, and  especially  with  that  of  the  principle  of 
spiritual  and  divine  life ;  in    ppl,  which  combines  the 

different  meanings  of  7rvevjua;  in  t!5S5,  which  comprises 

the  sense  of  respiration,  of  animal  life,  and  of  the  per- 
sonal soul. 

2.  Many  words  come  to  express,  in  consequence  of 
different  circumstances,  or  of  etymology,  several  diverg- 


j 6  Biblical  Hcrmeneutics. 

ent  ideas.  For  example,  avopoS  signifies  "  transgressor 
of  the  law"  (Acts  ii.  23),  but  avo/xoj?  (Rom.  ii.  12)  "  not 
having  received  the  law  "  ;  avrdpiaia,  "  contentment  of 
spirit"  (1  Tim.  vi.  6)  and  "sufficiency"  (2  Cor.  ix.  8); 
grjkot,  "zeal"  (Rom.  x.  2)  and  "envy"  (1  Cor.  iii.  3). 

3.  Others  have  been  modified  by  shadings  of  expres- 
sion, such  as  hyperboles,  emphases,  etc.,  or  simply  by 
usage,  as  ad&qjoZ,  ayio?P  which  are  used  to  designate 
Christians. 

4.  Figures  are  a  fruitful  source  of  new  variations, 
either  when  the  same  word  is  taken  sometimes  in  its 
proper  sense  and  sometimes  in  a  figurative  sense,  as 
8,001),  SdvaroS,  Wptio?(i  Cor.  xiv.  20:  Heb.  v.  13);  Svpa 
(1  Cor.  xvi.  9) ;  or  when  it  is  employed  in  two  distinct 
figurative  senses,  as  yprjyopeiv  and  uaSevdeiv,  used  not 
only  in  their  proper  senses  "to  watch"  and  "to  sleep," 
but  also  in  those  of  Christian  vigilance  and  of  moral 
sleep  (1  Thess.  v.  6),  and  still  further  in  those  of  life  and 
death.     (Ibid.  v.  10). 

§  37.  SPECIAL  NATURE   OF  THE   LANGUAGES   OF  THE 
HOLY   SCRIPTURES. 

The  interpreter  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  is  required,  in 
the  prosecution  of  his  work,  to  translate  them  from  two 
different  languages,  one  of  which  belongs  to  the  Semitic 
family,  and  the  other  to  the  Indo-European.  This  fact 
increases  the  difficulties  of  his  task.  The  Hebrew  va- 
ries, according  to  epochs  and  localities.  The  book  of 
Job  has  a  tinge  of  Arabic.  Ezra  iv.  8-vi.  18  ;  vii.  12-26  ; 
Jerem.  x.  11;  and  Daniel  ii.  4-vii.  28,  are  written  in 
Chaldee.     An  Aramean  element*  characterizes  the  lan- 


*  The  Aramean,  one  of  the  three  grand  divisions  of  the  Se- 
mitic languages,  comprises  two  principal  subdivisions ;  viz.,  the 
Syriac,  or   West  Aramean,  and  the  Chaldee,  or  East  Aramean. 


Grammatical  Hermeneutics.  jj 

guage  of  some  of  the  later  prophets.  Moreover,  the  He- 
brew has  special  difficulties,  in  the  occurrence  of  a  large 
number  of  words  technically  called  anaB,  \ey6j.i£va,  i.  e., 
words  which  are  found  only  once. 

The  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  consists  of  different 
elements,  of  which  we  will  speak  hereafter.  It  has  its 
idioms  ;  and  under  a  Greek  phrase  is  often  concealed  a 
Hebrew  turn  of  thought.  Thus  the  interpreter  may  be 
led  into  error,  either  by  forgetting  to  take  account  of 
these  idioms,  or  by  exaggerating  their  importance.  The 
syntax  of  the  New  Testament  is  often  neglected  or  mis- 
applied by  the  inaccuracy,  literary  inexperience,  or  emo- 
tion of  the  authors,  who  were  inspired  men,  but  idiGOTai 
tgj  Xoyco  (2  Cor.  xi.  6). 

In  short,  both  sacred  books  are  the  work  of  authors 
different  in  position  and  individuality,  from  which  results 
the  necessity  of  making  a  special  study  of  the  language 
and  thought  of  each  of  them. 

There  are  many  circumstances  which  combine  in 
increasing  still  further  the  difficulties,  and  consequently 
the  importance,  of  Grammatical  Hermeneutics.  It  is  not 
with  dictionaries,  formulas,  and  confessions  of  faith  alone 
that  the  interpreter  can  accomplish  his  work.  He  will 
be  successful  only  with  the  moral  and  intellectual  quali- 
fications that  we  have  mentioned  in  Psychological  Her- 
meneutics. To  these  he  must  unite  the  employment  of 
the  best  methods  and  all  the  scientific  and  philosophical 
precautions  at  his  command. 

II.— RESOURCES  AND  DUTIES. 

§38.    CONSIDERED    GENERALLY. 

Although  the  difficulties  attending  the  task  of  inter- 
pretation are  great,  they  arc  not  insurmountable.  There 
are  potent  and  numerous  resources  at  the  command  of 


/S  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

the  interpreter,  for  determining  the  mind  of  the  Spirit. 
The  difficulties  themselves  become  assistants  to  judicious 
and  active  critics  by  imposing  duties  upon  them.  The 
obstacles  in  the  path  of  the  interpreter  cause  him  to  re- 
double his  efforts,  collect  every  possible  help,  distrust 
his  individual  ability,  and  husband  his  energies. 

More  particularly,  we  observe  that  Grammatical  Her- 
meneutics furnishes  resources  and  imposes  duties,  derived 
from  the  following  sources  : 

(a).  From  the  text  itself. 

(b).  From  the  context. 

(c).  From  the  parallel  texts. 

(d).  From  materials  foreign  to  the  text. 

For  the  moment  we  must  confine  our  attention  to 
Grammatical  Hermeneutics.  However,  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that,  even  for  the  simple  determination  of 
the  sense  of  words,  Historical  and  Scriptural  Hermeneu- 
tics are  far  from  being  without  utility,  as  we  shall  see  in 
the  sequel. 

In  developing  the  subject  of  Hermeneutics,  we  are 
obliged  to  divide  it  into  successive  departments.  But 
in  reality,  the  different  elements  entering  into  the  inter- 
preter's task  mutually  act  and  react  and  even  interpene 
trate. 


Resources  Derived  from  the  Text.  79 


SECTION  FIRST. 

RESOURCES  DERIVED  FROM  THE  TEXT. 

§  39.   EMPLOYMENT   OF   THE   ORIGINAL  TEXTS. 

It  seems  superfluous  to  affirm  that  the  divine  who 
has  undertaken  to  interpret  the  Bible,  ought  to  consult 
habitually  the  original  texts.  Nevertheless  this  practice 
is  neglected  by  many  theologians,  even  by  those  who 
possess  sufficient  erudition  and  abundant  leisure. 

Frequently  this  neglect  is  simply  a  matter  of  indo- 
lence. A  large  class  of  thinkers  regard  the  authorized 
versions  of  the  Scriptures  as  sufficient.  It  is  a  mistake. 
Even  the  most  accurate  of  the  different  translations 
present  the  truth  in  a  veiled  condition.  They  can  sim- 
ply approximate,  more  or  less  closely,  the  precision  and 
clearness  of  the  original.  Every  version  leads,  sooner  or 
later,  into  error.  The  man  who  reads  the  original  text 
with  attention,  with  the  requisite  knowledge  and  dispo- 
sition, discovers  very  frequently  some  new  point  of  view, 
some  unforeseen  intention,  some  profound  and  suggest- 
ive allusion,  some  new  and  precious  element  in  the 
thought  of  the  sacred  author. 

This  method,  moreover,  has,  in  common  with  all  the  pro- 
founder  studies,  the  immense  advantage  of  giving  to  the 
theologian  great  vividness  and  freshness  of  thought, 
united  to  the  assurance  of  having  successfully  accom- 
plished his  task.  It  stimulates  the  thought,  adds  pleas- 
ure to  the  intellect,  gives  veritable  delight  to  the  heart, 
and  strengthens  faith.  All  these  advantages  are  more 
or  less  denied  to  the  indolent  investigator  who  contents 


8o  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

himself  with  the  ideas  sometimes  confused,  and  the 
beauties  always  impaired,  of  the  best  translations. 

In  others  this  negligence  is  the  result  of  an  excessive 
confidence  in  a  certain  justly-esteemed  version.  But  in 
addition  to  depriving  themselves  of  the  above-mentioned 
advantages,  interpreters  of  this  stamp  are  exposed  to 
many  grievous  errors.  They  are  in  danger  of  the  mis- 
takes that  the  most  perfect  versions  present  on  almost 
every  page,  and  it  is  difficult  for  them  to  avoid  the  error 
of  accepting  and  pressing  the  significance  of  the  individ- 
ual words,  which  can  rarely  reproduce  the  original  with 
entire  accuracy.     Let  us  notice  a  few  familiar  examples. 

The  German  theologians  have  supported  the  institu- 
tion of  patronage  upon  the  Mosaic  usages,  in  despite  of 
the  documents  and  facts  ;  doing  so  simply  because  Luther 
translated  "lfaja  (Esther  ii.  7),  which  signifies  "a  foster 

parent,"  by  Vormund,  "  a  guardian." 

A  preacher  of  mature  years  delivered  a  discourse  upon 
Ps.  xxxix.  5,  according  to  the  version  of  Osterwald, "  Thou 
hast  reduced  my  days  to  the  measure  of  four  fingers," 
and  thought  it  his  duty  to  explain  to  his  auditory  why 
the  psalmist  spoke  only  of  four  fingers  of  the  hand,  say- 
ing nothing  of  the  fifth.  If  he  had  been  conversant  with 
the  original,  he  would  have  discovered  that  it  was  a 
question  not  of  four  different  fingers,  but  of  a  measure 
in  length  (nStO  "the  palm"),  equal  to  four  widths  of  a 

finger.  The  sermon  was  ridiculous,  no  doubt,  and  the 
preacher  devoid  of  good  sense.  But  the  judgment  and 
genius  of  Saint  Augustine  have  not  prevented  him  from 
making  many  mistakes  of  this  character,  because  he 
made  but  little  use  of  the  original  texts. 

The  distinction  has  been  made,  in  the  study  of  the 
text,  between  that  of  the  words,  that  of  the  construc- 
tions, and  that  of  the  discourse.     The  several  parts  of 


Resources  Derived  from  the    Text.  81 

this  division  can  not  be  clearly  distinguished,  and  have 
the  disadvantage  of  being  involved,  here  and  there,  in 
some  confusion.  Still  we  will  employ  this  method  of 
division,  modifying  it  as  occasion  may  require.  Thus 
some  order  will  be  given  to  this  subject,  which  has  need 
of  arrangement,  being  in  its  nature  quite  vague  and 
minute. 

A.— STUDY   OF   THE  WORDS. 
§40.    ORDINARY   RESOURCES   OF   PHILOLOGY. 

1.  Grammatical  Science. — This  requires  no  explana- 
tion and  has  no  need  of  development.  Let  us  remark 
only  that  an  efficient  philologist  will  not  be  hampered 
by  general  rules,  but  will  be  competent  to  derive  light 
from  the  form  of  the  words  and  from  their  intimate  nat- 
ure. The  special  character  of  the  Greek  and  Hebrew 
will  afford  him  much  aid.  In  these  languages  certain 
terminations  of  the  adjective  distinguish  its  significance; 
certain  modifications  of  the  substantive  vary  its  mean- 
ing. In  Hebrew,  the  vowels  or  affixes  which  modify  the 
root  so  as  to  make  it  a  substantive,  attach  to  it  a  nature 
often  very  different  from  the  participle  or  infinitive  from 
which  it  is  derived,  and  exert  an  influence  upon  the  con- 
crete or  abstract  character  of  the  idea  which  it  expresses. 
These  resources,  and  many  others  of  the  same  nature, 
should  be  used  sparingly  and  wisely,  but  ought  not  to 
be  entirely  neglected. 

2.  Etymology. — The  study  of  etymology  is  an  attract- 
ive resource,  sometimes  leading  to  reliable  results,  but 
frequently  to  extravagance.  The  philologist  employing 
it  arrives,  or  pretends  to  arrive  by  the  pleasing  analysis 
of  etymology,  at  an  unforeseen  sense,  the  discovery  of 
which  is  its  own  reward.  But  this  discovery  is  fre- 
quently merely  an  illusion.     It   may  be   affirmed   even 


82  Biblical  Hermcnczdics. 

that  etymological  analysis  never  gives  entire  certainty. 
This  results  necessarily  both  from  the  multiplicity  of  the 
possible  relations  between  the  primitive  and  the  derived 
senses  and  from  the  extravagances  of  usage.  The  ety- 
mology of  v7raKovo)  would  lead  equally  to  the  Greek 
sense  "  to  obey,"  and  to  the  English  sense  "  to  under- 
stand." The  derivation  of  7rpo0;/re/a  would  lead  one  to 
translate  it  by  "  declaration,"  or  "  interpretation,"  rather 
than  by  "  prophecy";  and  in  fact  it  has  these  two 
senses  in  the  Scriptures.  The  undeniable  etymology  of 
"extermination"  gives  the  idea  of  "banishment,"  which, 
in  fact,  is  the  true  significance  of  extermination.  In 
having  recourse  to  etymology  the  interpreter  ought, 
therefore,  to  hedge  himself  in  with  precautions,  and  par- 
ticularly to  impose  upon  himself  the  following  three 
rules : 

(a).  Mistrust  far-fetched  and  strained  etymologies.  An 
example  of  relying  upon  these  is  found  in  the  case  of 
Augustine,  who  derived  from  the  Greek  ndffxeiv,  "  to 
suffer,"  the  word  "Passover,"  which  comes  from  a. He- 
brew word,  nt)3>  signifying  "  a  passing  over." 

(b).  Have  recourse  to  etymology  only  in  default  of 
other  resources,  or  in  order  to  aid  these  latter  in  verify- 
ing their  results. 

(c).  Demand  of  etymology  only  the  primitive  sense, 
and  do  not  deduce  that  of  the  derivatives  from  it,  with- 
out at  least  a  complete  and  rigid  examination. 

3.  Employment  of  Cognate  Languages. — The  study  of 
classic  Greek  in  relation  to  the  New  Testament,  and  of 
the  different  Aramaic  and  Arabian  dialects  for  the  Old 
Testament,  will  render  important  service  to  the  inter- 
preter. It  will  place  in  his  memory  a  mass  of  significa- 
tions, constructions,  phrases,  variations,  exceptions,  and 
idioms,  which  will  be  of  great  service  to  him  if  he  can 
avoid  the  abuse  of  them.     But  let  him  never  make  a 


Resources  Derived  from  the    Text.         83 

parade  of  his  knowledge  ;  let  him  not  seek  for  the  inge- 
nious, the  brilliant,  and  the  fresh  in  preference  to  the 
true. 

4.  Special  Study  of  the  Variations  of  Sense. — What  we 
have  already  said  (§  36)  of  these  variations  and  the  em- 
barrassments they  cause  to  the  interpreter,  proves  suffi- 
ciently the  special  study  they  require.  We  will  return 
hereafter  to  the  subject  both  in  Grammatical  and  in 
Historical  Hermeneuties. 


§41.    STUDY    OF    THE   SPECIAL  LANGUAGE     OF    THE 
NEW   TESTAMENT. 

The  language  of  the  New  Testament  is  not  the  Classi- 
cal Greek.  This  had  its  various  dialects,  of  which  four  have 
been  distinguished.  The  oldest  of  these  was  the  Aeolic, 
which  prevailed  in  Thessaly,  Boeotia,  Lesbos,  and  the 
north-western  coasts  of  Asia  Minor.  The  Doric,  which, 
proceeding  from  Doris,  spread  over  the  greater  part  of 
the  Peloponnesus,  over  Italy  and  Sicily.  The  Ionic, 
which  was  originally  spoken  in  Attica,  but  was  carried 
thence  by  colonists  to  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor.  The 
Attic,  which  was  used  in  Attica  after  the  emigration  of 
these  colonists.  This  dialect  soon  excelled  all  the  others 
in  refinement,  holding,  as  it  did,  a  middle  place  between 
the  harsh  roughness  of  the  Doric  and  the  softness  of 
the  Ionic. 

After  the  Macedonian  conquest,  when  Greece  was  de- 
prived of  its  liberty,  and  its  different  States  were  united 
under  one  government,  the  amalgamation  of  these  dia- 
lects, which  had  previously  begun,  was  completed.  In 
this  mixture  of  dialects  that  of  Macedonia  obtained  a 
place,  from  its  being  spoken  by  the  people  who  had  ac- 
quired the  sovereignty.  From  the  amalgamation  of 
these   various   elements   arose    the  KOivrj  diaXextoi,  or 


84  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

E\Xi]VL7a'j,  i.  c,  the  Common  Dialect,  or  the  Hellenic.  This 
dialect  is  substantially  Attic,  for  the  chief  characteristics 
of  that  dialect  remained,  notwithstanding  the  various 
modifications  introduced.  The  uoiv?)  diaXeuToi  is  the 
usual  standard  of  grammars  and  lexicons,  departures 
from  it  being  specified  under  the  names  of  particular 
dialects. 

This  Hellenic  Dialect  is  the  language  of  the  LXX,  of 
nearly  all  the  Apocryphal  writings,  of  the  Jewish  writers 
contemporary  with  the  Apostles,  and  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. The  special  and  minute  study  of  it,  therefore,  is 
a  matter  of  great  importance  to  the  interpreter  of  that 
portion  of  the  Sacred  Volume. 

Some  philologists  have  attempted  to  dispute  this  idea 
of  the  Greek  text,  and  have  claimed  that  the  Apostles 
employed  the  purity  of  the  classical  language.  This  is 
a  question  of  facts  and  words  that  we  may  now  regard 
as  decided.  The  view  we  have  adopted  does  not  deny 
the  correctness  or  elegance  of  many  passages.  But  the 
authors  of  the  New  Testament,  although  differing  greatly 
the  one  from  the  other,  in  regard  to  the  purity  of  their 
style,  are  all  more  or  less  subjected  to  the  influences  we 
have  just  been  indicating.  It  is  always  impossible  to 
interpret  them  accurately,  if  we  refuse  to  take  account 
of  these  variations.  We  find  in  the  New  Testament  a 
mass  of  words  with  meanings  foreign  to  the  classical 
sense;  substantives,  adjectives,  and  adverbs  irregularly 
terminated,  verbs  and  names  modified  in  their  conjuga- 
tion or  their  numbers. 

We  have  seen  that  the  New  Testament  is  Greek,  or 
what  has  been  denominated  by  grammarians  the  noivrj 
dictXexToS,  or  EX\t]viKTj.  But  it  has  other  elements,  espec- 
ially two,  which  have  been  called  the  Hebrew  and  the 
Christian. 

1.  The    Hebrew.      The  Old  Testament  was  the  ac- 


Resources  Derived  fro?n  the   Text.         85 

knowledged  code  of  faith  in  the  infancy  of  the  Hellenis- 
tic writers,  the  pledge  and  glory  of  their  nationality,  and 
almost  the  only  nourishment  of  their  intellectual  life. 
Its  language,  although  somewhat  modified  by  time,  was 
the  mother  tongue  of  most  of  them.  It  was  most 
natural  for  the  idioms  of  their  native  tongue  to  leave 
noticeable  impressions  upon  their  writings,  and  partic- 
ularly upon  the  New  Testament.  Hence  we  find  in  this 
latter  a  large  number  of  constructions,  thoroughly  He- 
braic, of  Greek  words  employed  in  an  acceptation  peculiar 
to  the  Hebrew,  and  of  Hebrew  words  written  in  Greek 
letters.  The  following  words  are  examples  of  the  last- 
mentioned  peculiarity  of  the  New  Testament  language  : 
d\ii]v,  dppafioov,  (.uxfifxcovai,  ffarav,  (Sand. 

2.  The  Christian.  The  more  perfect  revelation  of 
God's  will,  as  given  in  the  New  Testament,  necessitated 
a  more  perfect  usage  of  language.  The  thought  and 
affections  of  men  were  to  be  drawn  into  new  channels, 
hence  it  was  necessary  for  language  to  follow  wherever 
thought  and  affection  led.  Thus  resulted  the  creating 
of  new  words,  or,  more  frequently,  the  giving  of  new 
significations  to  the  words  then  in  usage.  This  power- 
ful influence  made  itself  felt  throughout  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  modified,  still  more,  the  language  of  the  Greek 
Fathers.  A  catalogue  of  the  principal  words  thus  im- 
pregnated with  Christian  thought  is  subjoined  : 

Ai'oov  ovto?,  fxeXXoov  7-  fiaffiXeia  rov  Qeov,  rov 
ovpavov  j  SiKaiovffSau,  Shiaio6vvr\  ;  6o£a,  8o£,a- 
8,£G%ai;  S,co7],  Savaro?,  8,001']  aioovioG ;  xaXalv,  uXrfffi?- 
xaraXXaffffeiv  ?-  jiAtjpovopeiv,  nXi]povo}.i'ux  •  xoffjuo?; 
Xo'yo?  •  Xvrpov,  XvTpouffSai ;  pvffrijpiov  •  vopoS,  e'pya 
vojuov  ;  7rapaH\t]ToS ;  Tt£ipao~)x6s ;  7tiffri?7-  rtXypcopcx, 
rtXi]povG$aij  7tvsvpa,  GdpB,^  7ipocpi]Tr]S,  7tpocpi]rtvBiv  ; 
GHOToZy  (poo?  ;  GTOixeia ;  rhiva,  viol  rov  &eov  ?-  vioi 
rov  dvBpoo7rov ;  X<xPl<>>  X^PlffMa  y  XP'^^i  ipvxiKO?' 


86  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

The  domination  of  the  Romans  had  likewise  intro- 
duced a  number  of  Latin  words  into  the  Greek  of  the 
Jews,  many  of  which  occur  in  the  New  Testament,  as 
doadpiov,  dip'dptov,  nevTOvpMv,  tcijvoog,  Kodpavrrjc; ,  Xeyeuv, 
fiiliov,  ndiceXXov,  oindpiog,  oTceKovMrup,  and  many  others. 

§  42.   RULES  AND   SUGGESTIONS. 

It  is  easily  understood  that  it  is  very  important  for 
the  interpreter  to  take  cognizance  of  these  different  ele- 
ments in  the  biblical  languages.  He  resembles  a  blind 
man  walking  near  a  succession  of  quicksands,  unless  he 
possesses  a  clear  insight  into  these  peculiarities,  and  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  their  nature  to  serve  him  as  a 
compass.  It  is  hazardous,  and  even  fatal,  to  walk  at  a 
venture. 

The  following  principles,  at  once  practical  and  general, 
should  be  remembered  by  the  interpreter : 

1.  The  strictly  classical  interpretations  and  analogies 
are  to  be  used  with  great  caution.  The  interpreter  of 
the  New  Testament  can  derive  benefit  from  the  profound 
study  of  the  Greek  of  Plutarch,  Diodorus,  Theophrastus, 
and  Lucian ;  but  there  is  little  help  to  be  derived  from 
the  more  ancient  or  Attic  authors.  An  acquaintance 
with  their  writings  certainly  will  not  be  useless,  and  we 
have  already  recommended  this ;  but  the  interpreter 
should  not  consult  them  habitually,  nor  in  preference  to 
the  later  writers  and  the  authors  of  the  New  Testament. 
He  would  thus  expose  himself  to  the  danger  of  being 
deceived  by  false  analogies,  or  allured  by  that  kind  of 
seduction  which  the  classics  exercise  upon  all  good 
philologists. 

2.  The  Old  Testament,,  its  spirit  and  its  language, 
ought  always  to  be  present  to  the  thought  of  the  inter- 
preter.    In  it  he  will  find  the  greatest  number  of  real 


Resources  Derived  from  the    Text.  87 


analogies  and  of  useful  reconciliations.  In  it  also  there 
are  many  sources  of  danger,  to  which  we  shall  revert 
hereafter. 

3.  There  should  be,  above  all,  a  desire  in  the  Christian 
heart  to  determine  the  true  and  profound  sense  of  the 
Christian  words.  Grammatical  Hermeneutics  is  confess- 
edly insufficient  for  this  task.  All  the  portions  of  the 
interpreter's  labor,  that  we  have  mentioned,  ought  to 
tend  unitedly  to  this  object.  But  in  order  to  accom- 
plish this  labor  the  interpreter  must  well  know  how  to 
determine  the  sense  of  the  important  words  of  the  New 
Testament,  which  is- not  a  purely  philological  task.  This 
can  not  be  accomplished  satisfactorily  with  dictionaries, 
and  by  studying  Josephus,  the  Septuagint,  or  Euripides 
and  Pindar.  This  is  at  once  an  evangelical  and  philosoph- 
ical work — a  work,  in  many  respects,  of  religious  affection 
and  experience,  but  which  ought  to  result  principally 
from  constant  meditation  upon  the  New  Testament. 

4.  The  theologian,  finally,  should  acquire  the  habit  of 
deriving  benefit  from  the  recent  philological  works, 
which  throw  light  upon  the  language  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. The  grammars  of  Winer  and  Buttmann  are  valua- 
ble, and  almost  the  only  complete  repertories  of  its  forms 
and  anomalies.  The  lexicons  of  Schleusner,  Wahl, 
Bretschneider,  Robinson,  and  Grimm  are  reliable  guides 
to  the  interpreter  in  determining  the  sense  of  words. 
Grammatical  commentaries,  like  those  of  Meyer  and  Elli- 
cott,  should  be  consulted  with  reference  to  the  philolog- 
ical interpretation. 

§  43.   DIVERSITY   OF   LANGUAGE   AMONG  THE   SACRED 
AUTHORS. 

Great  importance  should  be  attached,  in  the  act  of 
interpreting,  to  the  fact  that  there  is  a  diversity  of  lan- 
guage among  the  biblical  writers.     A  profound  knowl- 


88  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

edge  of  grammar  and  of  words  is  the  fundamental  ele- 
ment in  the  art  of  interpreting.  Hence,  when  the  prin- 
ciples of  this  grammar  and  the  sense  of  these  words  come 
to  be  modified  by  individual  pens  and  different  modes  of 
thought,  it  is  very  necessary  to  detect  and  take  account 
of  these  varying  influences.  There  are  several  causes  of 
this  diversity  in  the  usage  of  language  among  the  sacred 
authors. 

i.  In  respect  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  epoch  and 
the  place  of  writing  exert  a  varying  tendency.  The 
epoch  of  Moses,  that  of  David  and  Solomon,  that  of  the 
later  prophets,  and  that  of  the  Chaldean  or  Chaldaizing 
writers,  are  distinguished  each  from  the  others  by  the 
words,  the  style,  and  even  the  grammar.  We  can  not 
enter  into  these  details,  as  they  belong  more  properly  to 
the  Histoiy  of  the  Hebrew  language. 

2.  The  diversity  of  matters  treated,  and  of  the  kinds  of 
work,  exerts  a  varying  influence  upon  the  language. 
The  different  kinds  of  writings  (historical,  oratorical, 
didactic,  prophetical,  practical,  etc.)  cause  the  employ- 
ment of  different  styles.  We  shall  occupy  ourselves 
with  these  when  developing  Historical  Hermeneutics. 

3.  The  diversities  of  the  points  of  view  taken  by  the 
authors,  and  of  the  tendencies  of  their  writings,  modify 
the  language  employed.  We  shall  treat  of  these  in 
Scriptural  Hermeneutics. 

4.  The  different  individualities  cause  the  preference 
of  certain  words,  the  attaching  of  certain  senses  to  them, 
and  the  employment  of  certain  favorite  forms  and  images. 
Thus  are  introduced  many  profound  and  almost  unper- 
ceived  differences  in  the  language  of  different  writers. 
These  opposite  individualities  should  be  made,  by  the 
interpreter,  the  subject  of  profound  study.  To  under- 
stand the  importance  of  this  investigation  in  respect  of 
the  Old  Testament,  it  is  but  necessary  to  compare,  both 


Resources  Derived  from  the   Text.         89 

for  the  thought  and  for  the  form  in  which  the  thought 
is  clothed,  Isaiah  with  Amos,  Ezekiel  with  Micah,  Dan- 
iel with  Ezra,  David  with  Solomon,  Moses  with  Job. 

But  it  is  in  the  New  Testament  that  this  fact  assumes 
the  greatest  importance  and  demands  the  most  careful 
attention  of  the  interpreter.  St.  Paul,  St.  John,  and  St. 
James  form,  in  this  respect,  three  striking  individualities, 
the  confounding  of  which  it  is  necessary  to  guard  against. 
There  are,  for  example,  certain  words  which  appertain 
more  especially  to  the  individuality  of  each. 

John:  dyaTrav;  dX/fieia ;  dvTixptorog  ;  e'pxEo'haiEig  tov 
Koa^ov  •  SdvaTog ,-  £co?)  ,•  Aoyoc  j  Aoyoc  Trjg  £u>?/c  ,•  [lovoysvqg 
vtog  etc. 

Paul  :  a7Tohvi]OKEiVTivi$  dnoKaraXXdoaetv^  ypd\i\ia  opposed 
to  nvevfiaj  dinatovodaij  ixvi.v\ia  dovAEiag  j  [iEOiTrjg  •  \woTi]piov t 
the  numerous  usages  of  vo\iog,  etc. 

James:  dupociT/jg  and  Troi7]T7Jg  •  6iaKpivo);  6iaKpivo[iEvog • 
7TEtpaajj,6g  ■  vb\iog  (3aotAifc6g  ■  oofyiaj  vTro[j,ev(0  and  VTro^ov?), 
etc. 

It  may  be  observed,  moreover,  that  St.  John  and  St. 
Paul  often  express  identical  ideas  by  different  terms. 
Thus  in  St.  John  :  Trapa/cA^roc ,  \ieveiv  ev  tgj  Qe&,  yevv^ijvai 
dvoj^ev,  corresponding  to  ■nvEvp.a  dyiov,  rticva  tov  Oeov  and 
Kaivj]  Kxioig  of  St.  Paul. 

5.  Finally,  there  are  sometimes  purely  linguistic  hab- 
its which  modify  the  language  of  the  different  authors, 
Thus  St.  John  never  employs  the  optative.  St.  Paul 
places  dpa  "  therefore  "  at  the  beginning  of  the  phrase, 
thus  contributing  to  its  being  confused  with  dpa,  inter- 
rogative. 


9<d  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

B.— STUDY  OF  THE  CONSTRUCTIONS. 
§44.   CONSIDERED   GENERALLY. 

The  profound  study  of  syntax  is  evidently  another 
fundamental  element  in  the  science  of  interpretation. 
But  syntax  itself  is  subject  to  variation  under  diverse 
influences  which  will  be  at  once  a  difficulty  and  a  re- 
source. 

These  variations  may  pertain  : 

1.  To  the  time,  the  place,  the  people,  or  the  dialect. 
These  are  idioms. 

2.  To  the  inaccuracies  of  language.  These  are  anom- 
alies. 

3.  To  the  influences  of  thought  which  modify  the  con- 
struction without  changing  the  sense.  These  are  ex- 
ceptions of  form. 

4.  To  the  influences  of  sentiment  which  modify  the 
sense  without  changing  the  construction.  These  are 
augmentations  of  sense. 

§45.   IDIOMS. 

The  Old  Testament  presents,  in  almost  every  line, 
constructions  peculiar  to  the  Hebrew  language.  A  lit- 
eral translation  could  not  be  made  to  express  the  full 
value  of  these  Hebraisms.  The  interpreter  should  study 
these  different  idioms  separately  and  carefully. 

Frequently,  for  example,  two  words  are  found  in  jux- 
taposition which  ought  to  be  translated,  not  by  the  lit- 
eral succession  of  their  significations,  but  by  a  combina- 
tion of  their  meanings.  This  has  been  called  Hcndiadys 
or  "  one  in  two  "  {kv  <3td  dvoiv).  An  example  of  this  is 
found  in  1  Sam.  ii.  3  :  ^n^Hil  ^SnFfb&fc  which  ought  to 
be  rendered :    "  Do  not  multiply  words."     The   literal 


Resotirces  Derived  from  the    Text.  91 

translation,  "do  not  multiply,  do  not  speak,"  would  be 
meaningless. 

Another  example.  In  universal  negative  propositions 
the  Hebrews  prefer  to  separate  the  sign  of  negation  from 
that  of  universality,  instead  of  uniting  them  as  in  the 
Latin  expressions  nullus  and  nemo  and  the  French  aucun. 
Thus  Ps.  cxliii.  2,    l}T"bD  TDSb   P*^'1  SO>    is    literally  : 

"  Every  one  living  shall  not  be  justified  before  Thee," 
but  ought  to  be  translated  :  "  No  one  living  shall  be 
justified  before  Thee." 

The  New  Testament,  on  the  other  hand,  has  trans- 
ported a  great  number  of  these  Hebrew  idioms  into 
Greek.  The  Hebraisms  are  so  frequent  in  the  New 
Testament,  they  occupy  so  important  a  place  there,  they 
modify  the  sense  so  noticeably,  that  the  interpreter 
ought  to  place  great  importance  upon  understanding 
them  correctly. 

We  have  already  indicated  some  Hebrew  words  which 
are  met  with  in  the  New  Testament.  But  the  Hebraisms, 
properly  so  called,  are  much  more  common  and  consist 
in  expressions,  the  etymology,  the  sense,  or  the  con- 
struction of  which  are  borrowed  from  the  Hebrew. 
Thus,  for  etymology,  we  might  mention  fxanpoSvpda, 
ptaxpoSv/ueiv  (-pi^tt,  d^SSS  ?TifcO  '>  ocptov  qjayelv,  in  the 

sense  of  taking  a  meal ;  fiinaioovvy,  in  the  sense  of  be- 
neficence ;  evXoyia,  in  that  of  liberality.  As  to  con- 
structions, we  will  indicate  the  same  idioms  as  in  the 
Hebrew.  The  hendiadys  is  frequently  met  with.  An 
example  is  found  in  James  iii.  14:  /u)  xaraxavxocoBs 
xal  //-FvdeffSe,  "do  not  glory  in  lying";  literally,  "do 
not  glory,  do  not  lie."  A  hendiadys,  still  more  Hebraic,  is 
found  in  Luke  xxi.  15;  S&jffco  v/xfv  ffTo/ia  xal  ffoqjiav. 
"I  will  give  you  mouth  and  wisdom,"  for  "a  mouth  full 
of   wisdom."      The    universal    negatives,    also,   are    fre 


92  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

quently  disconnected  in  the  New  Testament  as  in  He- 
brew. An  example  is  found  in  John  iii.  15  :  i'va  7taZ  6 
ttkttsvgov  ....  ////  a7toA?/Tai7  which  should  be  trans- 
lated :  "  In  order  that  no  one  believing  may  perish," 
and  not,  "  in  order  that  every  one  believing  may  not 
perish." 

Besides  the  Hebraisms  of  this  nature,  so  prominent 
that  no  one  can  overlook  them,  there  are  others  which 
exert  an  influence  only  upon  a  shade  of  expression  and 
thought.  The  interpreter  ought  therefore  to  be  atten- 
tive to  these  subtle  and  often  unnoticed  relations.  He 
ought  to  be  so  well  acquainted  with  the  Hebrew  that 
they  can  not  escape  his  notice.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
ought  to  possess  the  rare  faculty  of  using  without  abus- 
ing this  kind  of  interpretation.  To  a  critic,  with  little 
judgment  and  experience,  partial,  and  unguarded,  the 
search  for  Hebraisms  may  become  a  mania  which  twists 
or  mutilates  the  thought  of  Revelation. 


§  46.   ANOMALIES. 

In  this  paragraph  we  will  pass  by  the  Old  Testament 
in  silence.  The  study  of  the  anomalies  of  the  biblical 
languages  might  be  applied  to  it,  but  in  no  great  meas- 
ure and  without  much  utility.  It  is  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment that  this  study  is  important  and  useful.  Almost 
all  the  New  Testament  authors  were  unlettered  men,  or 
at  least  unacquainted  with  style  and  grammar.  Hence 
they  have  not  always  been  able  to  avoid  ambiguities  of 
expression.  This  may  result  from  an  unexpected  change 
of  subject,  as  in  Mark  ix.  20  :  oar  av'rov  ....  xal 
7za6Gov,  where  the  first  participle  is  connected  with  Jesus 
Christ,  and  the  second  with  the  demoniac.  Or  it  may 
arise  from  a  pronoun  being  too  far  removed  from  its 
subject,  as  in  Acts  iv.  7 ;  avrov?  is  in  relation  with  an- 


Resources  Derived  from  the    Text.         93 

other  avtovs  occurring  five  verses  above.  Or  it  may 
arise  from  the  changing  of  a  direct  into  an  indirect  dis- 
course, or  inversely,  as  in  John  xiii.  29  :  dyopaaov  cbv 

Sometimes  a  substantive  is  united  with  an  attribute 
or  a  verb  to  which  it  ought  not  strictly  to  be  applied,  as 
when  Nicodemus  said  to  the  Pharisees,  John  vii.  51  : 
Mt/  o  rojuo?  ?//»(GJv  npivei  tov  av$pco7tovy  eav  jutj  auov6r] 
....  xal  yvcp  ri  itoiei.  Another  example  occurs  when 
Paul  rejoices  that  there  has  been  opened  to  him  a  great 
door  xal  evepy/j?  (1  Cor.  xvi.  9). 

Sometimes  a  verb  is  united  incorrectly  with  several 
nouns,  either  when  the  sense  may  be  improper  in  one  of 
the  cases,  as  I  Cor.  iii.  2  :  yaXa  v/uaS  in  or  16  a  uaX  oxf 
fip&>j.ia ;  or  when  it  results  in  a  contrary  sense,  as  1  Tim. 
iv.  3  :  ugjXvovtgdv  yafXEiv,  (X7r£X£ffBai  fipoojuaTGOv. 

Very  frequently  an  author  adopts,  in  the  close  of  a 
sentence,  a  construction  different  from  that  with  which 
he  set  out.  These  inaccuracies,  which  are  called  anaco- 
lutha,  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  New  Testament. 
We  have  an  example  in  Luke  xiv.  5  :  rivoi  vids  ?}  povi 
....    neanrai  Hal  ovk  evdeao?  ava.67ta.6tiy  etc. 


§  47.   EXCEPTIONS   OF   FORM. 

We  shall  collect  in  this  paragraph  several  variations  of 
the  New  Testament  writers  from  the  classic  Greek,  due 
to  the  vivacity  of  the  thought. 

1.  Several  instances  of  want  of  grammatical  agreement 
occur  in  the  New  Testament.  These  are  generally  due 
to  a  mental  substitution  by  the  author  of  something 
which  is  not  expressed.  An  example  is  found  in  2  Cor. 
v.  19:  Ho6j.iov  Kara\Xa66oov  savrcp,  p.if  Xoyi8,6p.£vo? 
avro\.  Here  there  is  a  want  of  agreement  as  to  num- 
ber between   uo6j.iov,  which    is  used   collectively,  and 


94  Biblical  Hermeneutks. 

avToI?.  Another  instance  occurs  in  Col.  ii.  19  :  ov 
xparGov  ti)v  ja(pa\i/v,  eg  ov.  Here  there  is  a  want  of 
agreement  as  to  gender  between  xecpaXrjv  and  ov.  The 
explanation  of  this  is  that  Paul  employs  the  real  gender 
in  using  ov  instead  of  the  grammatical  gender,  which 
would  be  feminine  to  agree  with  uecpakijv. 

2.  The  anacolutha  are  most  frequently  due  to  the 
vivacity  of  sentiment.  This  is  evident,  for  example,  in 
Gal.  ii.  6 :  amo  tgov  douovvroov  ....  ejuoi  yap  61 
SohovvteS. 

This  is  particularly  prominent  in  some  of  the  cases 
where  the  recital  passes  from  the  indirect  to  the  direct 
discourse.  Thus,  in  Luke  v.  14 :  7tapt'ryyeikev  avrcp 
[iijdevi  ei7tsiv.  aXXa  a7te\$Gov  deigov  aeavrov.  A  similar 
example  is  found  in  Acts  i.  4.  In  these  two  passages 
the  historian  began  to  recount  what  Jesus  said,  and,  as 
if  carried  away  by  the  vivacity  of  the  recital,  finished  by 
reproducing  His  very  words.  In  Mark  xi.  32  :  eav  .... 
ei'rtoopisv  eB,  dvSpGDTCGQv ;  €cpo/3ovvTO  tov  Xaov,  the  same 
cause  produces  an  effect  directly  the  reverse,  by  passing 
from  the  direct  to  the  indirect  discourse.  Instead  of  re- 
producing the  words  probably  long  and  embarrassed,  by 
which  the  priests,  scribes,  and  elders  exposed  their 
danger,  the  evangelist  comes  rapidly  to  the  fact.  He 
lays  bare  the  trepidation  which  concealed  itself  beneath 
the  phrases,  and  concludes  the  matter  in  three  words : 
"  They  feared  the  people." 

3.  Inversions  are  almost  always  the  result,  and  the 
sign  of  the  movement  of  the  thought.  An  example  is 
found  in  Rom.  v.  6:  en  xpiffTog,  ovroov  rffxwv  affBevcov, 
vnep  aGe,'jGjv  a7t€^ave.  This  arrangement  of  the  three 
words  ovroov  i)).icjv  dffSevcov  permits  the  writer  to  ex- 
press his  emotion  and  his  personal  gratitude  for  Christ 
who  came  to  seek  and  to  save  "sinners  without 
strength." 


Resources  Derived  from  the   Text.         95 


When  St.  James  says  (iv.  17):  sidori  ovv  xaXov 
noislv  xal  pi)  noiovvTi,  dfiapria  oivtgq  sffriv,  who  can 
fail  to  understand  the  intention  and  the  effect  of  this 
inversion  ?  Great  weight  is  thus  added  to  the  sentence 
of  condemnation  by  being  thus  thrown  back  to  the  very 
end  of  the  phrase,  after  the  statement  of  the  sin. 

The  interpreter  should  attach  great  importance  to 
these  inversions,  since  they  betray  the  hidden  sentiment 
of  the  author.  Much  care  and  attention  should  be  ex- 
pended upon  their  discovery.  A  superficial  examiner 
will  easily  overlook  them,  since  they  belong  to  an  elastic 
language  wherein  the  order  of  words  is  not  logically  de- 
termined. 

4.  Little  need  be  said  in  respect  of  the  diverse  species 
of  Ellipses,  which  are  very  common  in  a  language  so 
popular  and  animated  as  that  of  the  biblical  writers. 
These  ellipses  result  always  from  the  rapidity  of  the 
movement,  the  force  or  vivacity  of  the  idea,  and  the  in- 
stinctive need  of  sacrificing  superfluous  words.  "  Meats 
for  the  belly,"  says  Paul  (1  Cor.  vi.  13),  "and  the  belly 
for  meats."  The  verb  is  omitted  as  unnecessary,  and 
the  phrase  is  thus  more  vivid  and  direct.  And  when  he 
says,  in  his  second  epistle  to  the  same  church  (v.  13), 
sirs  yap  s^larypsv  Beep,  sits  aoocppovovpsv,  vp.iv,  no 
one  can  fail  to  perceive  the  emotion  concealed  in  this 
rapid  and  nervous  ellipsis. 

5.  Let  us,  finally,  notice  the paranomasias.  This  word 
is  used  to  designate  the  resemblances  of  analogous 
words  as  to  the  sound,  and  not  as  to  the  sense.  Such 
words  are  often  chosen  and  placed  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  attract  attention  and  surprise  by  the  contrast  between 
them.  Europeans  employ  the  paronomasia  (play  upon 
words)  only  in  witty  and  light  literature  ;  but  to  the 
Orientals  it  is  a  resource  of  poetry,  an  arm  of  eloquence, 
an   index  of  the  profundity  of  thought  and  the  superior- 


g6  Biblical  Hermcneutics. 

ity  of  the  intelligence,  an  efficient  means  of  surprising 
the  mind  or  of  arousing  the  imagination. 

Paranomasias  are  frequently  met  with  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, especially  in  the  Prophets.  Look,  for  example, 
at  the  first  chapter  of  Micah.  They  are  also  encoun- 
tered in  the  New  Testament,  although  here  they  are 
less  common  and  much  less  striking.  They  ought,  how- 
ever, so  much  the  more  to  fix  the  attention  of  the  inter- 
preter. The  resemblance  of  the  sound  in  a  parallel  case 
has  caused  more  than  once  the  employment  of  an  inex- 
act or  uncommon  word.  There  is  a  case  in  Rom.  i.  31  : 
atavvirovS,  dffvvBeTouS,  affropyov?,  affnovdov?. 

Two  remarkable  paranomasias  issued  from  the  mouth 
of  our  Saviour  upon  solemn  occasions.  One  occurs  in 
His  reply  to  Peter,  Matt.  xvi.  18  :  <jv  si  IltTpoS,  uai  sitl 
TavTy  rrj  nsrpa  oiHo8opii]OGj,  etc.  The  other  is  in  Luke 
xix.  42,  when  he  said  to  doomed  Jerusalem:  "Ah!  if 
thou  hadst  known  ....  the  things  which  pertain  to 
thy  peace."  These  last  words  are  in  sad  and  grave  allu- 
sion to  the  name  of  Jerusalem,  which  signifies  in  He- 
brew "  Habitation  of  Peace."  If  it  is  admitted  that  our 
Saviour  expressed  Himself  at  this  moment  as  upon  or- 
dinary occasions  in  Aramaic,  the  paranomasia  is  com- 
plete. 

Philip  used  an  elegant  and  untranslatable  parano- 
masia when  he  accosted  the  Eunuch  of  Candace,  Acts 
viii.  30:  'Apdys  yivaoffhei?  a  avayii'(&ff>(£<g.  These 
words,  so  concise  and  abruptly  brought  together, 
availed  to  fix  the  attention  of  the  pious  Ethiopian. 
They  had  some  influence  probably  in  revealing  to  him 
the  superior  authority  of  the  evangelist,  since  the  prose- 
lyte seems  to  have  considered  them  with  respectful  and 
careful  attention. 

The  modifications  of  sense  and  of  syntax  indicated  in 
this  paragraph  and  the  one  following  are  of  great  impor- 


Resources  Derived  from  the    Text.  97 

tance.  In  order  to  interpret  correctly,  the  exegete  must 
comprehend  not  only  the  general  sense,  but  also  its  mi- 
nor shades  of  meaning;  and  must  give  their  true  influ- 
ence to  the  sentiments  as  well  as  to  the  ideas  of  the  bib- 
lical authors. 

§48.   AUGMENTATIONS   OF   SENSE. 

The  sentiment  of  the  author,  without  changing  any- 
thing in  the  words,  may  change  their  value  and  impress 
upon  them  a  force  that  the  interpreter  ought  not  to  for- 
get. An  example  of  this  is  found  in  Hyperbole.  This 
species  of  figure  ought  not  to  be  understood  beyond 
the  literal  sense  of  the  words.  It  should  be  regarded 
only  as  an  index  of  the  difficulty  a  writer  has  experi- 
enced in  finding  adequate  expressions.  The  writer,  by 
this  figure  of  speech,  reveals  the  overflow  of  the  senti- 
ment within  him.  See,  for  example,  in  the  last  verse  of 
the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  the  assertion  that  the  whole 
world  could  not  contain  the  books  if  any  one  should  at- 
tempt to  recount  all  the  acts  of  Jesus  Christ.  The  re- 
verse has  place  in  the  figure  called  Mciosis,  wherein  the 
phrase  conveys  in  reality  much  more  than  it  seems  to 
express.  Thus,  in  Hebrews  xiii.  17,  the  author,  after 
having  recommended  his  readers  to  obey  their  pastors 
in  such  a  manner  as  that  they  may  prosecute  their  min- 
istry with  joy  and  not  with  grief,  adds :  "  That  is  un- 
profitable for  you."  This  evidently  signifies,  "  That  is 
injurious  to  you." 

A  touching  meiosis  may  be  observed  in  the  exclama- 
tion of  Paul,  Rom.  i.  16:  "I  am  not  ashamed  of  the 
gospel  of  Christ."  What  Christian  heart  can  fail  to  di- 
vine all  that  the  soul  of  the  Apostle  thus  expresses  of 
love  and  holy  pride  ! 

A  word  should  be  said  in  conclusion  in  respect  to 
Emphasis,  which  bears  a  very  close  resemblance  to  mei- 
5 


98  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

osis.  There  is  an  emphasis  upon  a  word  when  the  in- 
tention of  the  author  gives  to  that  word  a  sense  more 
complete  and  more  pronounced  than  is  customary,  and, 
consequently,  an  extraordinary  importance  in  the  phrase. 
In  John  ii.  1 1  the  apostle  says  that  after  Jesus  had 
wrought  the  miracle  in  Cana  the  disciples  believed  in 
Him.  It  is  easy  to  detect  that  the  word  e-niarevaav  in- 
dicates not  a  simple  belief,  which  the  disciples  already 
had,  but  a  powerful  increase  of  conviction  and  devotion. 
In  Acts  ii.  21  there  is  another  example:  "Whosoever 
shall  call  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord  shall  be  saved." 
"To  call"  here  signifies  quite  another  thing  than  a  sim- 
ple appeal  from  the  lips. 

The  variations  to  which  we  have  referred  in  this  para- 
graph are  scarcely  indicated  by  the  construction.  They 
would,  therefore,  pertain  much  more  naturally  to  the 
following  section,  where  the  question  of  the  context  will 
come  up. 

§49.   RULES. 

The  diverse  forms  and  figures  which  have  been  dis- 
cussed in  the  two  preceding  paragraphs  admit  some  un- 
certainty into  the  sense.  They  have  a  tendency,  at 
least,  to  furnish  weapons  to  the  partial  and  prejudiced 
interpreter.  This  authorizes  us  to  give  two  important 
rules  on  this  subject — the  one  negative  and  the  other 
positive : 

1.  Negative  Rule. — Do  not  regard  an  expression  as 
figurative  without  proof,  or  at  least  without  very  strong 
probability.  The  most  natural,  most  positive  significa- 
tion ought,  other  things  being  equal,  to  be  preferred. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  when  an  author  changes 
the  accustomed  sense  of  the  words  he  employs,  the  in- 
tention of  this  change  will  in  some  manner  be  revealed. 

2.  Positive  Rule. — The  expression  may  be  regarded  as 


Resotcrces  Derived  from  the   Text.  99 

hyperbolical  or  emphatic,  or  the  ordinary  sense  may  be 
considered  as  otherwise  modified,  when  there  would  re- 
sult from  the  literal  sense  a  physical  or  moral  impossi- 
bility or  a  meaning  contradicted  by  the  context.  Cf.  §§ 
82-88. 

C— STUDY    OF    THE    PHRASES    AND    THE    DIS- 
COURSE. 

§  50.  MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE   GENERAL   SENSE   OF   THE 
PHRASES. 

In  this  paragraph  will  be  collected  certain  modifica- 
tions analogous  to  the  preceding,  but  exerting  a  more 
decisive  influence  upon  the  entire  passage. 

1.  There  are  found  in  the  New  Testament,  and  espec- 
ially upon  the  lips  of  the  Saviour,  certain  concise  and 
sententious  phrases  which  seem  to  be  designed  to  attract 
attention  by  paradox  or  apparent  contradiction.  Thus 
we  read  in  Matt.  x.  39 :  "  He  that  findeth  (or  saveth)  his 
life  shall  lose  it "  ;  and  also  in  Luke  ix.  60:  "Let  the 
dead  bury  their  dead." 

This  form  of  expression,  to  which  has  been  given  the 
name  of  Oxymoron,  is  to  the  sense  precisely  what  pa- 
ranomasia  is  to  the  sound.  Consequently,  the  same  rules 
and  cautions  are  to  be  observed  in  each  case. 

2.  Irony  gives  to  a  phrase  a  sense  directly  opposed  to 
that  which  it  appears  to  have  in  ordinary  conversation. 
It  is  often  associated  with  a  sentiment  of  ridicule ;  but 
in  the  Bible,  as  might  be  expected,  it  always  expresses 
an  emotion  of  a  more  exalted  order.  In  the  Scriptures 
irony  almost  always  expresses  the  indignation  of  a  vir- 
tuous and  pious  heart,  offended  by  the  sight  of  evil.  It 
is  also  especially  frequent  upon  the  lips  of  the  Saviour 
when  opposing  the  Pharisees;  and  St.  Paul  employs  it, 
when  writing  to  the  Corinthians.     For  example,  Jesus 


ioo  Biblical  Herhienetitics. 

said  (Luke  xiii.  33)  :  "  It  can  not  be  that  a  prophet  perish 
out  of  Jerusalem."  In  1  Cor.  iv.  8,  Paul  says :  "  Now 
ye  are  full,  now  ye  are  rich,  ye  have  reigned  as  kings 
without  us,"  etc. 

3.  Interrogations  do  not  less  clearly  modify  the  sense. 
They  are  not  always  indicated  by  a  change  in  the  con- 
struction. Taking  James  ii.  21,  without  the  context,  it 
would  be  absolutely  impossible  to  decide  whether  the 
sacred  author  affirms  or  denies  justification  by  works. 
If  the  phrase  were  positive  it  would  deny  the  doctrine ; 
but  the  context  shows  that  it  is  interrogative,  and  that 
it  affirms  justification  by  faith  made  manifest  by  works. 
To  know  whether  a  phrase  is  interrogative  or  not  is  one 
of  those  problems  which  become  very  embarrassing  to 
the  interpreter  of  the  New  Testament.  The  easy  and 
frequent  confusion  of  imperatives  and  indicatives  throws 
him  into  analogous  difficulties. 

Every  conscientious  interpreter  will  understand  the 
necessity  of  being  carefully  assured  of  the  true  sense  in 
such  a  case.  Equally  plain  is  the  importance  of  a  dili- 
gent examination  before  admitting  a  given  phrase  to  be 
a  case  of  irony  or  an  interrogation,  where  a  positive  in- 
terpretation would  give  an  opposite  sense.  The  benefit 
of  the  doubt  must  be  given  to  the  positive  interpre- 
tation. 


Resources  Derived  from  the  Context.     101 


SECTION    SECOND. 
RESOURCES  DERIVED   FROM  THE  CONTEXT. 

§51.   CONSIDERED   GENERALLY. 

The  study  of  the  context  is  the  most  legitimate,  effi- 
cacious, and  trustworthy  resource  at  the  command  of 
the  interpreter.  Nothing  can  be  more  convenient,  more 
logical,  than  to  explain  an  author  by  himself,  and  to  have 
recourse  to  the  entire  train  of  thought.  It  is  much  less 
easy  for  sophism  to  abuse  this  mode  of  interpretation 
than  that  of  dealing  with  etymology,  philology,  and 
exceptions  of  syntax.  In  fact,  the  cases  wherein  the 
study  of  the  context  leads  to  error  are  so  rare  that  it  is 
justly  placed  at  the  head  of  the  means  to  which  the  in- 
terpreter should  have  recourse.  It  is  of  the  greatest 
necessity  in  the  interpretation  of  the  whole  Bible,  since 
the  antique  and  popular  character  of  its  writings  brings 
with  it  many  obscurities.  Especially  is  it  important  to 
the  understanding  of  the  epistles  of  Paul,  wherein  the 
thought,  sometimes  breaking  the  phrase  by  its  energy, 
remains  embarrassed  and,  as  it  were,  smothered  beneath 
the  debris. 

The  study  of  the  context  pertains,  at  once,  to  Gram- 
matical and  to  Scriptural  Hcrmcneutics.  We  speak  of 
it  here  rather  than  in  the  sequel,  because  it  is  an  indis- 
pensable and  inseparable  complement  of  the  preceding 
section. 

The  benefits  derived  from  the  study  of  the  context 
may  be  grouped  under  a  few  principal  heads. 


102  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


§  52.   DETERMINATION   OF  VAGUE   WORDS  AND   OF 
VARIABLE   SENSES. 

Already  have  been  noticed  the  numerous  and  grave 
difficulties  that  words  of  vague  meaning  impose  upon 
the  interpreter.  The  study  of  the  context  is  not  only 
the  best,  but  almost  the  only,  means  of  certainty  in  such 
cases. 

A  few  examples  may  be  given.  The  word  ipvxv  has 
been  mentioned  (§  36)  as  having,  in  the  New  Testament, 
three  very  distinct  senses  :  (a)  the  life  of  the  body,  (b)  • 
the  seat  of  the  passions,  (c)  the  responsible  soul  or  im- 
mortal personality.  Each  time  this  word  is  employed, 
the  context  informs  us,  almost  unquestionably,  which  of 
the  senses  ought  to  be  preferred.  Thus  in  Matt.  vi.  25, 
ipv,XV  makes  an  antithesis  to  rpo07/;  similar  to  that  be- 
tween oCdfia  and  svdvfia.  The  symmetry  of  these  antithe- 
ses demonstrates  that  the  life  of  the  body  is  here  the 
true  sense. 

BoaiXlia  tuv  ovpav&v  in  Matt.  v.  10,  necessarily  sig- 
nifies eternal  life,  since  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is 
promised  in  this  passage  to  those  who  are  persecuted 
upon  earth ;  but  in  Matt.  xiii.  24,  being  compared  to  a 
field  where  the  tares  remain  mixed  with  the  wheat  until 
the  harvest,  the  phrase  must  signify  the  universal  visible 
church. 

In  order  to  understand  better  the  great  utility  of  the 
context,  as  to  the  determination  of  the  sense  of  vague 
or  variable  words,  let  us  proceed  to  study  in  detail  the 
principal  biblical  meanings  of  an  important  word,  which 
has  been  the  occasion  of  many  disputes  and  miscon- 
ceptions. 

IIiotiS,  "  faith,"  ordinarily  expresses  in  the  orthodox 
symbols  an  idea  at  once  complex,  formulated,  and  in- 


Resources  Derived  from  the   Context.      103 

variable.  In  the  New  Testament,  on  the  contrary,  the 
word  answers  to  the  various  developments  of  one  funda- 
mental idea — that  of  religious  persuasion.  The  context 
alone  can,  and  does,  inform  us  of  the  shades  of  senti- 
ment or  the  diverse  convictions  which  should  be  added 
to  the  primitive  sense. 

It  will  not  be  necessary  to  examine  those  passages, 
such  as  Rom.  x.  8,  and  Jude  3,  where  the  word  rciartq  is 
employed  by  ellipsis  in  the  objective  sense  to  signify  the 
object  of  faith.  These  very  rare  passages  may  be  deter- 
mined by  the  context  as  well  as  the  others  ;  but  we  are 
now  concerned  with  the  idea  of  subjective  faith,  taken 
in  its  proper  sense. 

In  Rom.  xiv.  23  occurs  this  passage  :  "  Whatsoever  is 
not  &k  moreug  is  sin."  The  formulated  interpretation  of 
this  passage  has  formerly  been  that  every  work  which 
was  not  performed  by  a  Christian  possessed  of  saving 
faith  was  sinful:  as,  for  example,  the  good  .deeds  of 
pagans  ;  splendida  pcccata,  as  Augustine  calls  them.  But 
this  interpretation  is  incompatible  with  the  context. 
The  reading  of  the  whole  verse  renders  it  certain  that 
the  sense  of  mong  here  is  the  element  in  which  the 
Christian  lives  and  moves,  conscientious,  religious  per- 
suasion. 

In  the  eleventh  chapter  of  Hebrews  the  sacred  author 
extols  the  faith  of  the  ancient  patriarchs.  The  dog- 
matic conclusion,  in  the  minds  of  some,  is  that  these 
men  possessed  a  complete  faith  in  the  Saviour,  and  a 
distinct  knowledge  of  redemption,  without  which  they 
could  not  be  saved.  The  faithful  study  of  the  context, 
however,  shows  that  faith  in  this  passage  is  used  in  an 
entirely  different  sense.  In  the  first  verse  he  defines 
faith,  in  its  most  abstract  sense,  as  belief  in  the  invisible. 
In  the  third  verse  he  makes  an  application  which  is  in- 
compatible with  the  dogmatic   interpretation  we  have 


104  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

mentioned ;  and  in  the  sixth  verse  he  develops  and  ap- 
plies the  idea  of  faith  we  have  advocated.  Hence 
results  the  complete  demonstration  that,  in  this  whole 
passage,  mang  indicates  a  religious  belief  in  the  exist- 
ence and  perfections  of  an  invisible  God,  the  profound 
conviction  of  the  dependence  of  man  upon  Him,  and 
the  hope  of  receiving  His  rewards. 

James  (i.  6)  commands  us  to  ask  wisdom  from  God 
Iv  mar  el  ,  the  necessary  condition  of  obtaining  it.  A 
strict  interpretation  of  this  passage  has  been  given, 
which  teaches  that  it  is  necessary  to  possess  a  firm  faith 
in  all  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Scripture  in  order  to 
obtain  the  help  of  God.  But  the  latter  part  of  this 
verse  and  the  eighth  verse  demonstrate  that,  in  this  pas- 
sage, mang  is  opposed  to  doubt  and  inconstancy  of 
purpose.  It  signifies  a  religious  belief  of  the  heart  and 
the  will,  full  of  energy,  confidence,  and  ardent  desire. 

In  Rom.  xii.  3,  Paul  recommends  to  the  faithful  to 
entertain  modest  sentiments  proportionate  to  the 
"  measure  of  faith "  (jisrpov  7tictt£wc)  that  God  has 
given  to  each.  Some  may  conclude  that  the  believer 
to  whom  God  has  given  a  more  complete  faith  is  less 
bound  by  these  sentiments  of  modesty,  ococppovsiv  ;  but 
the  context  contradicts  this  interpretation.  Verses  4-8 
demonstrate  that  the  apostle  has  in  his  mind  the  special 
capacities  of  each  in  reference  to  the  functions  of  the 
church.  The  modesty  he  recommends  consists  in  not 
aspiring  to  those  offices  for  which  they  have  no  divinely 
bestowed  aptitude.  Faith  in  this  passage  indicates  a 
Christian  belief,  acting  outwardly  and  manifesting  itself 
objectively  by  evangelical  words  and  in  ecclesiastical 
functions.  "It  is  the  subjective  condition  (the  objective 
is  the  divine  jap/c)  of  that  which  every  one  can  and 
ought  to  do  in  the  Christian  life  of  the  Church" 
(Meyer). 


Resources  Derived  from  the  Context.     105 

In  Rom.  iii.  28,  Paul  states  the  conclusion  of  an  ex- 
tended argument  for  justification  by  faith.  The  context 
determines  the  thought  of  the  apostle.  The  fundamen- 
tal idea  of  religious  belief  is,  in  the  accompanying  verses, 
completed  and  determined  by  several  new  elements. 
The  2 1st  verse  places  this  faith  in  opposition  to  the  law. 
The  23d  verse  presents  it  as  necessitated  by  the  sin  of 
man,  and  in  verses  22,  25,  and  26,  it  appears  as  the 
means  of  pardon — a  means  at  once  necessary  to  man  and 
desired  by  God.  Verse  25,  moreover,  attaches  faith  and 
the  pardon  it  procures  to  the  death  of  Christ  as  an  ex- 
piatory sacrifice.  Combining  now  these  diverse  ele- 
ments, we  recognize  that  in  this  important  declaration 
the  apostle  takes  ttIoth;  in  the  sense  of  a  religious  be- 
lief accompanied  by  a  fervent  reliance  upon  Christ  and 
by  the  natural  effects  of  this  reliance,  which  are  twofold  : 
(a)  The  conviction  of  our  sins,  (b)  The  firm  hope  of 
pardon  procured  by  the  sacrifice  of  Christ. 

In  Gal.  ii.  20,  faith  is  presented  (1)  as  a  religious  be- 
lief which  has  incorporated  itself  in  the  life,  which  has 
even  become  the  life  of  the  soul ;  (2)  as  producing  in  the 
heart  of  the  believer  an  entire  self-abdication  and  an  in- 
timate union  with  Christ ;  (3)  as  springing  from  the  con- 
templation of  the  love  of  Christ  and  of  His  sacrifice. 

§  53.  DETERMINATION  OF  THE  LOCAL  AND  GENERAL 

SENSES. 

The  importance  of  comprehending  the  sentiments,  as 
well  as  the  thoughts,  of  an  author  has  been  mentioned 
in  Psychological  Hermeneutics.  The  various  emotions 
determine  the  choice  and  order  of  the  thoughts,  modify 
the  forms  of  expression,  and  deeply  mark  every  phrase 
with  their  impress. 

The  study  of  the  sentiments  is  particularly  essential 
5* 


106  Biblical  Hermenetitics. 

to  the  understanding  of  Paul's  writings.  The  emotions 
of  the  apostle  exert  a  strong  influence  upon  his  epistles, 
disuniting  the  phrases,  disturbing  the  deductions,  and 
obscuring  the  connection  between  the  ideas.  When 
writing  to  the  Corinthians  or  to  the  Galatians,  he 
wishes  to  conceal  the  grief  or  indignation  with  which  he 
is  moved  and  endeavors  to  follow  a  series  of  ideas  regu- 
larly and  logically  connected.  But  this  attempt  at  calm 
and  coherent  reasoning  conceals  a  profound  emotion 
which,  discovering  itself  here  and  there,  bewilders  the 
reader,  changes  the  tone  of  the  discourse,  and  intermin- 
gles doctrinal  instruction  with  sorrowful  and  sublime 
cries  of  the  heart.  In  his  calmest  writings  Paul  is  agi- 
tated by  the  abundance  and  persistence  of  his  ideas, 
which,  breaking  through  the  form  of  words,  burden  his 
epistles  with  digressions  and  parentheses ;  without  ever 
doing  injury,  however,  to  the  fundamental  order,  to 
which  the  author  always  returns. 

When  a  person  speaks  or  writes  out  of  the  abundance 
of  a  moved  heart,  it  is  necessary  to  pay  special  attention 
to  the  prompting  motives  in  order  to  understand  him. 
Hence  the  interpreter  should  form  the  habit  of  detect- 
ing quickly  and  analyzing  closely  the  affections  and  emo- 
tions which  excite  or  modify  the  writings  upon  which 
he  is  engaged. 

These  observations  are  preliminary  to  the  main 
thought  of  this  paragraph,  which  is,  that  the  context  is 
the  best  means  of  giving  method  and  clearness  to  this 
study.  All  the  details  necessary  to  the  discovery  of  the 
motives  of  an  author  may,  in  many  cases,  be  found  in 
the  context.  Studying  the  context  will,  therefore,  re- 
veal the  local  sentiment  of  the  phrase  or  word  upon 
which  the  interpreter  is  engaged. 

But  it  will  still  be  necessary,  always  by  the  aid  of  the 
context,  to  ascend  from  the  local  to  the  general  senti- 


Resources  Derived  fro?n  the  Context.      107 

ment  of  the  passage  or  book.  Every  book  has  a  prompt- 
ing motive  for  its  existence,  and  of  this  motive  the  in- 
terpreter ought  to  have  a  clear  and  positive  knowledge, 
founded  on  an  analysis  of  the  facts.  The  courts  con- 
sider that  an  action  is  not  clearly  and  correctly  under- 
stood until  the  motives  originating  it  have  been  care- 
fully studied.  The  general  sentiment  of  a  book  reveals 
to  us  the  motive  of  its  publication,  and  therefore  the 
interpreter's  task  is  not  performed  until  he  has  found 
this  sentiment,  by  examining  the  local  and  general  con- 
text. 

§  54.    DETERMINATION   OF   OBSCURE  PHRASES. 

Obscurities  of  sense  arise  either  from  peculiarities  of 
idiom,  or  from  irregular  constructions,  or  from  modifi- 
cations in  the  form  of  words  and  phrases.  The  context 
is  often  the  only  means  at  the  disposal  of  the  interpre- 
ter of  throwing  light  upon  these  perplexing  passages. 

A  few  examples  of  the  utility  of  the  context  in  solv- 
ing these  difficulties  will  be  given  : 

1.  Phrases  which  are  obscure  because  of  their  con- 
struction or  their  conciseness. 

Such  phrases  are  often  explained  or  developed  by  the 
context  in  such  a  manner  as  to  remove  their  obscurity, 
as  in  John  xvi.  8,  which  is  developed  in  the  succeeding 
verses.  Frequently  the  context  contains  repetitions,  op- 
positions, symmetrical  and  parallel  expressions,  which  suf- 
fice to  remove  the  difficulties.  The  vague  and  almost 
surprising  expression,  6  -noiibv  ri)v  dXffieiay,  John  iii. 
21,  is  made  plain  by  the  antithesis  in  verse  20,  6  (j>av\a 
TTpdaao)v.  It  is  thus  found  to  signify  the  one  who  lives 
in  a  religious  and  Christian  manner,  and  not  the  one  who 
merely  accepts  the  truth.  The  parallelism  of  the  He- 
brew poets  constantly  renders  this  service  to  interpreta- 
tion.    Another  example  is  found  in  Matt,  xxiii.  9,  "Call 


108  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

no  man  your  father  upon  the  earth."  The  preceding 
and  succeeding  verses  show  that  he  spoke  not  of  the 
fathers  according  to  the  flesh,  but  of  the  habit  of  giving 
this  honorary  title  to  the  doctors  of  the  law. 

The  two  noticeable  propositions  in  Phil.  ii.  12,  13  : 
"  Work  out  your  own  salvation  with  fear  and  trembling," 
and  :  "  It  is  God  which  worketh  in  you  both  to  will  and 
to  do  of  his  good  pleasure,"  have  given  rise  to  many 
false  interpretations.  They  would  even  appear  contra- 
dictory if  they  were  separated.  But  united  as  they  are, 
and  being  made  reciprocally  the  context,  they  are  mutu- 
ally limited,  explained,  and  built  into  one  important 
truth.  The  same  is  true  of  watching  and  prayer  in  the 
discourses  of  our  Saviour.  Often  the  principle  or  the 
consequence  of  an  obscure  proposition  is  found  in  the 
context,  and  thus  the  doubtful  passage  is  elucidated. 
Thus  in  1  John  iv.  1  :  the  apostle  recommends  to  "  try 
the  spirits  "  to  see  if  they  come  from  God,  which  might 
surprise  us ;  but  the  latter  part  of  this  verse  gives  us  the 
motive,  the  two  following  verses  the  means,  and  we  dis- 
cover that  he  speaks  of  false  prophets. 

2.  Phrases  which  are  obscure  because  of  those  modifi- 
cations of  sense  which  do  not  change,  or  which  but 
slightly  change,  the  construction  and  words. 

In  a  great  number  of  cases  the  context  is  the  only 
means  of  ascertaining  whether  the  phrase  is  ironical  or 
positive,  interrogative  or  affirmative,  imperative  or  indic- 
ative, figurative  or  simple,  relative  or  absolute.  The 
twenty-second  chapter  of  1  Kings  places,  in  the  presence 
of  two  kings,  the  true  and  false  prophets  in  a  manner  as 
dramatic  as  it  is  interesting  and  instructive.  The  flat- 
tering promise  made  by  the  prophet  of  the  Most  High 
(verse  15)  seems  to  contradict  the  entire  passage;  but 
the  16th  verse  shows  us  that  it  was  ironical,  since  the 
King  of  Israel  himself  understood  it  thus.     Is  epevvare. 


Resotirces  Derived  from  the  Context.      109 

in  John  v.  39,  an  imperative  or  an  indicative  ?  Does 
Jesus  say  to  the  Jews  :  "  Ye  search  the  Scriptures,"  or 
does  He  command  them  so  to  do  ?  This  last  sense  is 
much  more  probable,  since  in  the  verses  preceding  and 
succeeding  our  Saviour  reproaches  His  auditors  for  their 
evil  intentions  and  unbelief.  In  James  ii.  4,  the  words 
ov  dieKpihrjTE  ev  iavrolg  have  the  air  of  a  negation  :  "  Ye 
do  not  make  a  difference  among  yourselves."  The  con- 
text, however,  proves  that  they  are  interrogative,  and 
that  they  affirm  instead  of  deny.  "  Do  ye  not  make  a 
difference,  etc.  ?  "  The  writer  goes  on  to  give  the  proof 
of  the  fact  that  his  readers  made  "  differences  "  among 
themselves,  and  the  latter  part  of  the  verse  confirms  the 
reproach  by  an  analogous  and  parallel  reproach. 

Those  words  in  Titus  i.  15  :  "  To  the  pure  all  things 
are  pure,"  appear  at  first  sight  to  be  in  contradiction  to 
Christian  morality,  and  have  given  rise  to  many  absurd 
interpretations.  The  14th  verse  is  sufficient  to  show 
that  this  proposition  refers  only  to  human  ordinances. 
In  Luke  xxi.  15,  Jesus  promised  to  inspire  with  fullness 
of  wisdom.  To  whom  did  He  promise?  The  context 
shows  that  He  addressed  himself  only  to  His  disciples, 
and  that  His  promise  had  reference  entirely  to  the  per- 
secutions which  menaced  them.  This  15th  verse  is 
placed  in  the  center  of  a  long  passage  (verses  6-36), 
where  the  near  sufferings  of  believers  are  announced, 
and  in  connection  with  three  verses  where  the  theme  is 
of  the  persecuting  tribunals  and  of  the  conduct  to  be 
observed  before  them.  The  context  similarly  proves  the 
relative  character  of  the  analogous  promise  in  John  xvit 
13. 


1 1  o  Biblical  Herme?ieutics. 

§  55.    FAULTS   OF  INTERPRETERS  WITH   REFERENCE   TO 
THE   CONTEXT. 

In  the  employment  of  the  context  as  a  means  of  inter- 
pretation, two  errors  have  been  committed,  the  one 
through  negligence,  and  the  other  through  exaggeration. 

1.  Negligence. — The  context,  the  natural  and  logical 
resource  of  the  interpreter,  has  neither  been  sufficiently- 
appreciated  nor  employed.  This  help,  although  being 
of  great  use,  possesses  no  especial  attraction  to  certain 
minds,  since  it  does  not  conduct  to  brilliant  and  un- 
looked-for results.  Other  resources,  such  as  the  paral- 
lels, the  etymology,  and  the  archaeology,  are  very  fre- 
quently preferred,  as  affording  scope  for  ingenuity. 

2.  Exaggeration. — Sometimes,  on  the  other  hand,  too 
much  importance  has  been  given  to  the  context.  Gen- 
erally the  dogmatical  school  has  fallen  into  the  error  of 
negligence,  while  exaggeration  is  predicable  of  the  ra- 
tionalistic school.  The  influence  of  the  context  in  re- 
vealing the  true  sense  is  evidently  proportionate  to  the 
harmony  of  ideas  throughout  the  whole  passage.  The 
extent  of  this  harmony,  however,  changes  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  writings,  and  frequently  according  to 
the  character  of  the  authors.  The  context  is  neither  so 
connected  nor  so  extended  in  a  poetical,  historical,  or 
sententious,  as  in  a  didactic  or  oratorical  passage.  What 
context,  other  than  the  parallelism,  is  there  from  the 
tenth  to  the  twenty-ninth  chapter  of  Proverbs?  The 
One-hundred-and-nineteenth  Psalm,  being  purely  alpha- 
betical, presents  as  little  context.  It  would  therefore 
be  absurd  to  proceed  in  the  interpretation  of  this  Psalm, 
as  in  that  of  the  Fiftieth  Psalm,  which  forms  a  complete 
whole,  carefully  elaborated  and  closely  united.  In  the 
Prophets  context  is  often  evident  and  important,  but  of 
no   great   extent.     The   specialties,  the  variations,  the 


Resources  Derived  from  the  Context.      1 1 1 

sudden  transitions  peculiar  to  the  prophetical  writings, 
render  the  employment  of  the  context  much  less  useful 
there  than  elsewhere. 

This  is  where  the  rationalistic  interpreters  have  erred, 
when  they  have  contested,  in  particular,  the  Messianic 
sense  of  the  prophetical  writings,  and  their  predictive 
sense  in  general.  Reasoning  as  they  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  do  in  the  didactic  works,  they  have  denied  the 
Messianic  sense,  even  the  evident  oracles,  because  the 
preceding  verses  were  engaged  with  other  subjects.  This 
is  a  pure  petitio  principii.  They  have  denied  the  proph- 
ecy because  they  did  not  discover  in  it  the  characteristics 
which  they  preconceived  to  be  necessary  to  .a  prophecy. 

§  56.  DUTY  OF  THE  INTERPRETER  IN  REFERENCE  TO 
THE  CONTEXT. 

The  interpreter  who  wishes  to  explain  a  word  or 
phrase  by  the  aid  of  the  context,  should  first  of  all  de- 
termine the  limits  of  that  context.  He  should  endeavor 
to  comprehend  the  full  sense  and  the  general  bond  of 
union  of  the  passage,  seeking  not  the  brilliant  and  inge- 
nious interpretation,  but  the  correct  sense  and  the  natu- 
ral connection. 

This  done,  he  will  still  be  cautious,  remembering  that 
he  may  have  arrived  only  at  a  probability  of  truth.  In 
order  to  verify  his  conclusions  he  should  repeat  his 
labor,  weighing  each  word,  comparing  the  several  de- 
tails, taking  account  of  the  preference  given  by  the  au- 
thor to  each  expression  and  each  figure,  until  a  complete 
harmony  has  been  established  between  the  different  ele- 
ments of  the  context  and  the  context  itself,  between  the 
context  and  the  text,  between  the  lesser  parts  and  the 
whole.  The  conclusions  thus  attained  should  be  further 
verified  by  an  appeal  to  the  other  resources  of  Herme- 
neutics. 


112  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


SECTION  THIRD. 
RESOURCES  DERIVED  FROM  PARALLEL  TEXTS. 

§57.   DISTINCTIONS. 

The  employment  of  this  means  of  interpretation  has 
given  rise  to  great  confusion  and  many  misconceptions. 
A  few  distinctions  will  be  necessary  to  warn  the  inter- 
preter against  falling  into  these  errors. 

In  order  to  explain  an  obscure  passage,  it  has  been 
judged  convenient  to  compare  the  parallel — i.  c,  resem- 
bling, analogous,  or  symmetrical — passages.  This  resource 
is  at  once  natural,  seductive,  and  of  easy  usage ;  and 
often  of  great  advantage. 

There  are  two  very  different  tasks  for  this  resource 
to  perform,  which  should  not  be  confounded.  The  com- 
parison of  parallels  has  a  two-fold  object,  (a)  to  explain 
an  obscure  or  unknown  word,  (p)  to  determine  the  cor- 
rect interpretation  of  a  vague  or  contested  idea.  In  the 
first  case  the  other  uses  of  the  same  word  should  be 
sought ;  in  the  second  instance,  the  other  expressions  of 
the  same  idea.  In  the  first  case  a  parallel  of  words  is 
obtained,  but  in  the  second  a  parallel  of  ideas.  These 
are  distinct  resources  which  differ  in  object,  method,  and 
rules.  The  confounding  of  these  two  instruments  ex- 
poses the  interpreter  to  obvious  errors,  which  have  not 
always  been  avoided.  The  parallels  of  words  pertain  to 
Grammatical  Hermeneutics.  The  parallels  of  ideas  be- 
long to  Scriptural  Hermeneutics,  and  should  be  investi- 
gated there. 

In  order  to  make  this  distinction  better  understood 


Resources  Derived  from  Parallel  Texts.    11 


we  will  adduce  an  example  which  combines  in  one  word 
the  two  kinds  of  parallels.  This  may  be  found  in  the 
word  ovpavol  which,  in  the  plural  number,  is  frequently 
found  in  the  New  Testament.  In  order  to  ascertain  the 
literal  sense  of  this  word  and  to  explain  its  plural  usage, 
appeal  must  be.  made  to  the  parallelism  of  words.  Ref- 
erence may  be  first  made  to  the  Hebrew  Qi^tU,  an^  thus 
the  conclusion  is  reached  that  the  plural  usage  of  ovpavoi 
is  a  Hebraism.  Referring  next  to  Eph.  iv.  10,  where  the 
ascension  of  Jesus  is  described,  vrrepdvo)  irdvruv  t&v  ovpav&v 
we  find  that  the  plural  designates  merely  the  heaven  of 
nature. 

But  in  order  to  determine  the  Christian  idea  to  be. at- 
tached to  this  word,  appeal  must  be  made  to  the  paral- 
lels of  ideas.  In  Matt.  xix.  24,  and  elsewhere,  we  find 
(iaoi/teia  r&v  ovpavdv  made  synonymous  with  fiamleia  rov 
Geov,  and  we  often  see  these  two  modes  of  expression 
substituted  the  one  for  the  other.  In  Matt.  xiii.  43,  we 
have  another  expression,  as  the  context  clearly  shows, 
of  the  same  idea:  fiaoiXela  tov  irarpbq.  From  the  com- 
parison of  these  different  passages  the  conclusion  is 
clearly  drawn  that  ovpavoi,  at  the  same  time  that  it  indi- 
cates the  heaven  of  nature,  expresses  by  the  association 
of  ideas,  the  abode  of  the  redeemed  after  death.  This 
idea  is  further  confirmed  by  Col.  i.  5,  where  is  mentioned 
the  hope  which  is  reserved  for  us  ev  rolg  ovpavo:g,  and  by 
a  great  number  of  other  parallel  passages. 

If  any  one  should  confound  these  two  orders  of  par- 
allels, employ  them  indifferently,  or  cease  to  take  due  ac- 
count of  the  diversity  of  their  nature  and  object,  he 
would  arrive  at  very  grave  misconceptions.  By  mistak- 
ing the  parallelism  of  words  for  that  of  ideas,  he  would 
conclude  that  Jesus  has  gone  above  the  abode  of  the  re- 
deemed and  the  throne  of  God.  On  the  other  hand,  by 
mistaking  the  parallelism  of  ideas  for  that  of  words,  he 


1 14  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

would  be  convinced  that  ovpavol  is  a  name  of  God.  The 
mistake  in  this  case  is  little  to  be  feared,  since  it  would 
be  so  apparent ;  but  when  the  error  is  less  noticeable 
there  is  great  danger  of  being  deceived. 

In  reference  to  the  parallels  of  words,  there  is  still  an- 
other distinction  as  to  nature  and  method,  which  gives 
rise  to  a  special  division  of  some  importance. 

(a).  The  parallels  of  words,  properly  so  called,  consists, 
as  we  have  seen,  of  different  passages  wherein  the  same 
word  occurs.  Thus  a  series  of  contexts  is  obtained  to 
the  same  word,  and  by  a  comparison  of  these  its  true 
meaning  may  be  ascertained. 

{&).  There  are,  also,  certain  parallels  of  words  which 
are  really  parallels  of  phrases.  These  consist  of  different 
passages  containing  the  same  phrase,  or  at  least  the  same 
recital ;  but  with  this  important  difference,  that  the  word 
which  is  obscure  in  one  passage  is  displaced  in  the  other 
by  a  synonym  which  explains  it. 

To  these  two  categories  let  us  briefly  attend. 

§  58.    PARALLELS   OF   WORDS. 

I.  Properly  so  called.  The  manner  of  using  the  real 
parallels  of  words  has  already  been  indicated.  The  dif- 
ferent passages  in  which  the  obscure  word  occurs  are 
compared,  giving  prominence  to  the  most  important,  and 
valuing  highly  those  which  are  most  related  to  the  spec- 
ial object  in  hand.  From  this  discriminating  compari- 
son the  unknown  sense  is  derived.  When  the  passages, 
thus  compared,  are  closely  connected  by  being  written 
in  the  same  epoch,  or  by  authors  of  analogous  modes  of 
thought,  or  by  occurring  in  books  of  the  same  general 
nature,  the  local  sense  of  the  word  will  be  determined. 
When,  on  the  contrary,  the  passages  are  dissociated  in 
the  same  respects,  the  general  sense  only  can  be  obtained 
with  certainty. 


Resources  Derived  from  Parallel  Texts.     115 

Sometimes  the  contexts  of  the  passages  thus  compared 
do  not  give  the  same  sense  to  the  obscure  word.  This 
has  been  exemplified  in  the  analysis  made  above  of  the 
idea  of  Trlorig.  But  in  such  a  case  the  object  is  only  bet- 
ter attained  ;  for  not  only  is  the  literal  meaning  of  the 
word  determined,  but  the  student  has  also  discovered 
its  different  modifications  and  biblical  applications. 

The  intimate  connection  between  the  employment  of 
the  context  and  that  of  the  parallels  is  evident.  The 
collating  of  parallel  texts  is  really  the  collection  of  as 
many  contexts,  since  each  text  should  be  studied  with 
reference  to  its  companion  texts. 

2.  Parallels,  improperly  so  called,  or  parallels  of  phra- 
ses. These  will  be  best  explained  by  a  few  examples.  In 
the  enumeration  of  the  chief  officers  of  David's  court 
(2  Sam.  viii.   18)  it  is  said  that  his    sons   were  Qi5!"i3, 

which  signifies  "priests."  The  employment  of  this  word 
in  speaking  of  the  princes  of  Judah  seems  anoma- 
lous, or  rather  in  complete  contradiction  to  the  whole 
life  of  David  as  well  as  to  the  Law.  It  is  a  historic  im- 
possibility. Referring  to  I  Chron.  xviii.  17,  we  find  the 
same  recital,  the  same  enumeration,  and  the  same 
phrase;  excepting  that  'n*|5iz}^l  "chiefs,"  is  substituted  for 

the  obscure  word  mentioned  above.  We  are  authorized, 
therefore,  to  conclude  that  the  author  of  the  Chronicles 
recognized  in    0"orb    a  variable  and  general  sense,  from 

which  the  signification  of  "  chiefs  "  or  "  princes  "  may  be 
derived,  as  well  as  that  of  "priests."  In  Mark  xi.  8  it 
is  recorded  that  the  multitude  cast  off  onfiddag,  when 
Jesus  was  riding  triumphantly  to  Jerusalem,  and  strewed 
the  route  along  which  He  was  to  pass.  This  word  is  an 
a-a^  Any., — i.e.,  found  in  no  other  passage  of  the  New 
Testament.     By  a  reference,  however,  to  Matt.  xxi.  8, 


1 1 6  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

an    explanation    is    found,    for    here    the   word    itXddovg 
"  branches  "  is  substituted  for  it  in  the  same  phrase. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  parallel 
phrases,  since  it  is  not  always  certain  that,  in  spite  of 
the  close  resemblance  between  two  related  phrases,  the 
thought  of  the  two  writers  is  identical. 


Resources  Foreign  to  the   Text.  117 


SECTION  FOURTH. 

RESOURCES  FOREIGN  TO  THE  TEXT. 

§59.   GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS. 

THERE  are  many  subsidiary  helps,  such  as  books  and 
special  treatises,  which  are  of  great  value  to  the  interpre- 
ter. However,  as  these  pertain  rather  to  theological 
Methodology  they  should  not  be  dwelt  upon  minutely 
here.  Our  subject  embraces  the  principles  of  interpre- 
tation, but  not  the  process  of  exegesis.  Still,  a  few  prac- 
tical suggestions  will  be  in  place,  in  reference  to  the 
philological  resources  which  penetrate  somewhat  into 
the  science  of  interpretation. 

These  may  be  classified  in  two  principal  categories : 

1.  Those  which  are  occupied  with  the  languages  of 
the  Sacred  Books,  such  as  the  grammars  and  lexicons. 
We  have  already  referred  to  the  works  of  this  character 
which  treat  especially  of  the  language  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. A  constant  reference  to  these  instruments  is 
necessary  in  every  profound  study  of  the  Bible. 

2.  Those  which  are  occupied  not  with  the  languages 
in  general,  but  with  the  special  sense  of  a  given  word  or 
phrase.  Examples  of  these  may  be  found  in  the  ver- 
sions and  paraphrases  of,  and  the  commentaries  upon, 
the  Holy  Scriptures. 

The  use  of  these  instruments  should  become  more 
general  among  the  theologians  of  our  country.  The 
possession  of  a  well-selected  library  is  a  duty  in  their 
position  and  profession,  as  much  so  as  that  of  the  anvil 
to  the  smith,  or  the  spade  to  the  laborer.     In  this  we 


1 1 8  Biblical  Hermenentics, 

would  do  well  to  learn  from  the  German  students,  who, 
however  straitened  in  circumstances,  do  not  imagine  that 
they  can  succeed  without  a  well-filled  and  well-used 
library.  A  clergyman  in  German  lands,  who  possesses 
no  books,  who  does  not  read  the  religious  publications 
of  the  day,  falls  irretrievably  in  the  consideration  of  his 
flock  and  of  the  outside  world.  The  same  must  be  the 
case  with  theologians  of  all  lands.  Never  were  force  of 
thought  and  independent  meditation  so  much  needed  as 
at  the  present  day.  Communion  with  the  master  minds 
on  biblical  subjects  is  a  great  incentive  to  individual 
thought. 

§60.   A   CHOICE   TO   BE   MADE. 

This  choice  is  important,  for  the  instruments,  particu- 
larly of  the  second  category,  are  innumerable,  and  it  is 
essential  to  study  only  the  best  productions.  All  have 
their  special  tendencies,  their  peculiar  qualities,  and  their 
individual  faults.  There  are  many  which  are  dangerous 
and  deluding  guides  to  the  student.  The  evident  neces- 
sity of  the  choice  renders  necessary  certain  suggestions 
of  practical  value. 

1.  It  is  proper  to  consult  at  once  the  opposite  tenden- 
cies, and  the  different  schools.  It  is  of  advantage  to 
compare  the  literal  and  the  free  versions ;  the  erudite, 
the  logical,  and  aesthetic  commentaries;  the  rationalists 
and  the  supernaturalists ;  the  able  exegetes  and  the 
pious  paraphrasts  ;  the  philological'  and  theological  inter- 
preters. If  one  has  the  good  fortune  to  find  an  instru- 
ment which  combines  the  different  tendencies  as  well  as 
the  opposite  methods,  and  conciliates  them  with  just 
criticism  and  true  faith — it  is  priceless,  but  it  is  rare. 
From  a  purely  philological  point  of  view,  the  lexicons 
of  Gesenius  render  this  service  to  the  Hebrew. 

2.  In  each  of  those  tendencies  and  schools  it  is  neces- 


Resources  Foi'eign  to  the   Text.  T19 

sary  to  study  the  works  of  the  greatest  ability  and  in- 
sight. There  is  not  time  to  peruse  all,  and  when  one  is 
penetrating  an  unknown  country  he  has  need  of  sure 
guides.  It  is  necessary  to  leave  to  scholars  and  to  the 
great  libraries  mediocre  books,  works  of  no  special  merit, 
eccentric  productions,  and  authors  who  aspire  more  to 
astonish  than  to  enlighten.  All  these  avail  merely  to 
mislead  the  beginner,  to  distract  his  studies,  and  to  ex- 
haust his  precious  time  without  fruit. 

3.  The  interpreter  should  prefer,  other  things  being 
equal,  the  special  treatises,  and,  above  all,  the  mono- 
graphs, which  are  always  more  complete  and  more  pro- 
found than  general  works,  because  they  have  absorbed 
more  interest  and  more  time.  Even  mediocre  men 
sometimes  produce  remarkable  monographs.  Exegetical 
theology  already  possesses  special  treatises  upon  the 
more  important  portions  of  the  Bible. 

Much  diversity  may  be  found  frequently  in  the  differ- 
ent portions  of  the  same  work.  One  chapter  may  com- 
pare unfavorably  with  another,  as  to  logic,  ardor,  and 
finish.  Scope  for  judicious  selection  is  therefore  furnish- 
ed within  the  pages  of  a  single  volume. 

4.  Finally,  the  student  should  limit  himself  to  a  small 
number  of  books,  at  least  at  the  beginning. 

He  who  grasps  too  much  in  his  arms  binds  the  bundle 
but  poorly.  The  library  of  students  ought  to  resemble 
the  house  of  Socrates — small,  but  full  of  true  friends. 

§6l.   USE   TO   BE   MADE. 

In  order  to  make  a  good  use  of  the  resources  which 
the  interpreter  has  placed  in  his  library,  he  should  first 
of  all  know  them  well,  and  then  employ  them  wisely. 

1.  The  preliminary  labor  of  studying  them  carefully 
is  necessary  in  order  to  be  aided  by  their  merits,  and  to 


120  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

avoid  their  faults.  In  the  works  of  great  extent  (as  the 
commentaries  upon  a  prominent  portion  of  the  Bible)  it 
is  particularly  necessary  to  distinguish  between  the  parts 
that  have  been  carefully  prepared  and  those  that  have 
been  neglected. 

It  may  be  further  suggested  that  an  examination  of 
some  important  portions  of  a  work  will  be  sufficient  to 
reveal  the  character  of  the  whole.  The  method  and  the 
principles  of  a  commentary  may  be  ascertained  by  the 
study  of  its  treatment  of  certain  obscure  and  contested 
passages.  The  preface  reveals  to  experienced  observers 
the  spirit  of  an  author  and  his  religious  tendency.  It 
has  often  been  observed  that  rationalistic  theologians,  in 
their  prefaces,  seem  uniformly  preoccupied  with  literary 
success,  and  the  supernaturalists  with  the  interests  of  the 
faith.  Thus  it  is  that  ordinarily  the  reader  may  be  as- 
sured of  their  principles  even  before  reading  anything  of 
the  remainder.  This  first  provisional  criterion  rarely 
deceives  as  to  the  direction  and  character  of  the  writer. 

2.  The  wise  employment  of  the  hermeneutical  instru- 
ments in  one's  possession  is  the  next  step,  and  seems  to 
demand  the  union  of  three  elements : 

(a).  It  is  necessary  to  employ  them  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  utilize  the  special  advantages  of  each  instrument, 
and  not  to  be  tainted  by  its  faults. 

(b).  The  interpreter  should  use  them  so  as  to  make  his 
own  thought  independent  and  his  investigation  critical, 
rather  than  to  obtain  in  detail  the  results  all  prepared. 
In  order  to  accomplish  this,  special  attention  should  be 
given  to  each  author's  methods,  principles,  and  judg- 
ment, rather  than  to  the  particular  solutions  given  as 
examples. 

(c).  The  student  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  object 
of  reading  is  to  stimulate  and  enlighten  his  own  intelli- 
gence, so  that  his  further  investigations  may  be  reliable. 


Resources  Foreign  to  the   Text.  121 

His  object  should  be  to  understand  the  Bible,  and  not 
the  commentaries.  The  passage  or  text  should  be 
studied  first  in  the  Bible  and  then  in  the  commentary ; 
and  thus  the  spontaneous  sagacity  of  each  man's  mind 
will  be  preserved. 


Such  are  the  principal  topics  to  be  noticed  under 
Grammatical  Hermeneutics.  The  resources  mentioned 
are  fundamental ;  for  the  words  of  the  text  are  the  ob- 
ject of  interpretation  ;  and  the  knowledge  of  the  lan- 
guage is  the  necessary  means.  However,  all  the  elements 
of  successful  interpretation  are  not  yet  obtained. 


PART     THIRD. 

HISTORICAL  HERMENEUTICS.— Introduction. 

§  62.   DEFINITIONS   AND   EXPLANATIONS. 

The  name  of  Historical  Hermeneutics  is  given  to  the 
whole  of  the  resources  derived  from  the  study  of  the 
historical  circumstances  which  have  exerted  an  influ- 
ence upon  the  production  of  the  work  and  upon  the  in- 
dividuality of  the  author. 

It  will  be  granted  that  the  writers  of  the  different  bib- 
lical books  preserve  their  individual  style  of  expression 
and  modes  of  thought.  It  is  perfectly  evident,  more- 
over, that  the  object  of  a  book,  the  persons  to  whom  it 
is  addressed,  the  time  and  place  wherein  it  was  com- 
posed, and  the  circumstances  which  determined  the 
choice  of  these  persons,  should  exert  much  influence 
upon  the  choice  of  ideas,  upon  the  sense  attached  to  the 
particular  words,  and  upon  the  relative  character  of  the 
truth  imparted. 

It  can  not  be  seriously  denied  that  the  education  of 
an  author,  his  profession,  his  times,  and  his  nationality 
would  influence  his  language,  expressions,  illustrations, 
and  manner  of  conceiving  and  imparting  truth.  The 
same  word  does  not  correspond  exactly  and  in  all  cases 
to  the  same  idea  or  collection  of  ideas  in  Moses  and 
Solomon,  in  Matthew  and  John,  or  in  John  and  James. 
There  is  an  intellectual  sphere  peculiar  to  each  author, 
which  is  still  further  modified  according  to  circum- 
stances. 

It  is  impossible  to  interpret  wisely  and  completely 
(122) 


Historical  Hermcneiitics.  123 

without  having  investigated  this  sphere  with  attention 
and  study  as  thoroughly  as  one  mind  is  capable  of  tread- 
ing on  the  domain  ruled  by  another.  The  task  in  this 
Third  Part,  therefore,  consists  in  investigating  the  nat- 
ure of  the  circumstances  which  modify  the  individuality 
of  the  sacred  authors.  The  investigation  will  proceed 
from  the  center  outward,  beginning  with  that  which  is 
personal  to  the  author,  and  ending  with  that  which  we 
shall  find  of  a  more  general  character  in  the  writings. 

Four  different  orders  of  circumstances  are  to  be  stud- 
ied in  as  many  sections  : 

1.  Circumstances  personal  to  the  author. 

2.  Social  circumstances  in  which  he  was  placed. 

3.  The  philological  habits  that  this  position  imposed 
upon  him. 

4.  Circumstances    foreign   to   the    author,  but  which 
have  determined  the  production  of  his  writings. 


124  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


SECTION   FIRST. 
PERSONAL  CIRCUMSTANCES   OF  THE  AUTHOR. 

§  63.   EDUCATION  AND   PROFESSION. 

The  circumstances  which  surround  the  child  are  al- 
ways of  much  importance  in  his  gradual  development, 
and  are  recognizable  in  the  character  of  the  man. 
Whether  they  inspire  or  debilitate  him,  they  leave  an 
impress  upon  his  ideas,  trains  of  thought,  and  modes  of 
expression.  Augustine  and  Schleiermacher  can  not  be 
adequately  understood  without  taking  into  account  the 
holy  mother  of  the  former  and  the  Moravian  education 
of  the  latter.  The  influence  of  the  same  causes  is  dis- 
cernible in  the  inspired  authors.  No  one  can  fail  to  dis- 
cover in  Paul  the  man  reared  in  the  school  of  the  Phari- 
sees and  trained  at  the  feet  of  Gamaliel.  The  Psalms, 
which  are  the  work  of  David,  are  often  recognizable  by 
the  tender  admiration  of  nature  with  which  the  youth- 
ful shepherd  was  filled  when  he  kept  his  father's  flocks 
on  the  plains  of  Bethlehem. 

A  man's  profession  is  simply  a  continued  education, 
completing  or  modifying  the  first  and  exerting  a  power- 
ful influence  upon  the  man,  his  manners,  and  his  lan- 
guage. It  is  sufficient  to  name  the  mariner,  the  soldier, 
the  merchant,  the  laborer,  the  clergyman,  and  the  law- 
yer, in  order  to  call  to  mind  as  many  different  types  of 
men,  each  having  his  habitual  tone,  his  familiar  expres- 
sions, his  peculiar  images,  his  favorite  point  of  viewing 
every  subject — in  a  word,  his  special  nature.  The  stu- 
dent should  expect,  therefore,  to  find  something  resem- 


Personal  Circumstances  of  the  Author.      125 

blingr  this  in  the  Bible,  and  be  able  to  derive  therefrom 
some  facility  in  understanding  the  sacred  authors.  No 
interpreter  worthy  of  the  name  can  fail  to  remark  the 
rustic  images  of  the  shepherd  Amos  or  the  sacerdotal 
coloring  of  the  last  chapters  of  Ezekiel.  David — suc- 
cessively shepherd,  captain,  and  king  —  has  sown  his 
Psalms  with  images  borrowed  from  nature  and  from  bat- 
tles. His  son  Solomon  betrays  in  his  Proverbs  the  re- 
fined and  spiritual  observation  of  the  crowned  philoso- 
pher, who,  living  in  a  more  peaceful  and  more  advanced 
civilization,  looks  upon  society  from  a  serene  height. 
No  intelligent  observer  can  fail  to  detect  the  profes- 
sional scribe  in  the  recitals  and  compilations  of  Ezra, 
and  in  the  book  of  Nehemiah,  the  patriot  magistrate 
and  skilled  administrator. 


§  64.   DEGREE   OF   INSTRUCTION  AND  OF  NATURAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

Notwithstanding  the  infallibility  of  wisdom  assured 
by  the  Holy  Spirit  to  the  sacred  authors,  their  natural 
traits  assert  their  influence  on  their  writings.  Some  had 
a  more  extensive  share  of  knowledge,  others  an  experi- 
ence more  varied  ;  some  possessed  faculties  of  greater 
vigor,  others  powers  of  wider  generalization — and  these 
diversities  could  not  fail  to  exert  an  influence  on  the 
form  in  which  divine  truth  is  conveyed.  The  degree  of 
the  intellectual  development  of  each  author  is  therefore 
an  important  fact  for  the  interpreter,  who  will  con- 
stantly have  occasion  to  notice  its  effects.  Moses — 
reared  by  scholars  in  a  palace  and  "  learned  in  all  the 
wisdom  of  the  Egyptians  " — was  a  chosen  instrument  to 
give  to  the  Hebrews  the  legislation  which  should  gov- 
ern them.  The  knowledge  of  Egyptian  arts,  laws,  and 
morals  is  betrayed   in  many  of  his  passages,  in  spite  of 


126  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

the  salutary  transformation  that  the  divine  thought 
caused  them  to  undergo.  Among  the  New  Testament 
writers,  Luke  allows  his  literary  habits  to  appear  in  his 
prologue  and  dedication.  The  discourse  of  Paul  to  the 
Athenians  supposes  some  knowledge  of  the  wisdom  and 
books  of  the  Greeks  at  the  same  time  that  they  reveal 
the  impress  of  an  elevated  imagination  and  a  generaliz- 
ing mind.  It  would  be  impossible  to  suppose  that  this 
discourse  issued  from  the  lips  of  Peter.  The  natural 
qualities  of  James'  mind  were  profundity  and  medita- 
tion. They  all  have  their  favorite  language  and  figures, 
which  do  not  permit  them  to  be  confounded  with  classi- 
cal authors  or  professional  philologists. 

The  interpreter  must  be  able  to  avail  himself  of  these 
peculiarities  in  the  natural  thought  of  the  sacred  au- 
thors. He  should  expect  a  logical  and  regular  method 
in  the  epistles  of  Paul.  He  should  demand  of  James 
only  an  underlying  connection  of  ideas,  and  of  Peter 
only  the  animated  utterances  of  an  impulsive  soul. 

§  65.    MORAL   CHARACTER. 

The  heart  as  well  as  the  mind  of  man  is  reflected  in 
his  writings.  A  profound  study  of,  and  close  sympathy 
with,  the  moral  character  of  an  author  are  therefore  nec- 
essary to  every  successful  interpreter.  In  order  to  at- 
tain this  sympathy,  it  is  necessary  to  become  conversant 
with  the  history  of  each  author's  experience  and  affec- 
tions. Unfortunately  for  the  interpreters  of  the  Bible, 
the  history  left  us  in  regard  to  the  sacred  authors  is 
very  meagre.  Only  slight  hints  are  possessed  by  us  in 
reference  to  Ezekiel,  Isaiah,  Matthew,  and  even  John. 
This  deficiency  in  historical  knowledge  of  the  sacred 
authors  must  and  may  be  supplied,  in  some  measure  at 
least,  by  the  writings  themselves.     Studied  with  atten 


Personal  Circumstances  of  the  Author.      127 

tion,  and  with  reference  to  the  investigation  desired, 
they  enable  us  to  discover  the  moral  as  well  as  the  in- 
tellectual characteristics  of  the  men  imperfectly  known 
from  history.  No  attentive  reader  of  Isaiah  and  of 
John  can  arise  from  the  perusal  of  their  writings  with- 
out a  definite  idea  of  their  emotional  character. 

It  is  not  an  argumentum  in  circulo  to  appeal  to  a  book 
in  order  to  discover  the  intellectual  and  moral  character- 
istics of  an  author,  and  then  to  explain  the  book  by 
these  characteristics.  For  in  the  one  case  we  appeal  to 
the  writing  as  a  whole,  and  in  the  other  case  we  apply 
the  general  notions  thus  obtained  to  the  elucidation  of 
the  details  of  the  work.  This  subject  is  therefore  one 
ramification  of  the  study  and  value  of  the  context. 

The  key  to  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  is  found  in  the 
patriotic  ardor  of  Moses,  in  the  consciousness  of  his 
mission,  and  in  his  constant  solicitude  as  to  its  issue. 
This  is  the  explanation  of  this  strange  and  magnificent 
book — a  book  of  contrasts  and  patriotic  emotions,  of  the 
last  farewell  of  a  loving,  anxious,  and  forgiving  father  to 
his  ungrateful  and  fickle  sons.  No  one  can  fail  to  dis- 
cover the  moral  character  of  David  in  his  Psalms  of 
lamentation,  which  always  begin  with  the  groanings  of  a 
grief  without  hope  and  end  with  the  transports  of  a  filial 
confidence.  Emptied  of  pride  by  suffering,  the  poet- 
king  turns  himself  to  the  Lord,  and  the  remembrance  of 
His  many  kindnesses,  the  belief  in  His  constant  presence 
and  tender  forgiveness,  gradually  transform  the  bitter- 
ness of  his  soul  into  resignation,  love,  and  holy  joy. 

A  merely  philological  interpretation  of  Paul's  writings 
can  never  reveal  the  true  force  and  beauty  of  his  emo- 
tional, vigorous,  and  yet  logical  compositions.  It  is  par- 
ticularly true  of  his  epistles,  as  of  all  the  sacred  books, 
that  an  understanding  of  the  moral  character  of  the 
author  is  an  important  means  of  their  interpretation. 


128  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


SECTION   SECOND. 

SOCIAL  CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  THE  AUTHOR. 

THESE  comprehend  all  the  social  surroundings  of,  and 
influences  exerted  upon,  the  author,  which  are  not  pecul- 
iar to  him  as  a  man,  but  participated  in  by  his  contem- 
poraries also.  Those  which  most  readily  influence  a 
writer  will  be  indicated.  Then  we  will  examine  succes- 
sively the  effects  which  these  circumstances  produce,  the 
means  to  be  employed,  and  the  precautions  to  be  ob- 
served, in  order  to  appreciate  their  influence  aright. 

I.  NATURE  OF  THE  SOCIAL  CIRCUMSTANCES. 
%66.   GEOGRAPHICAL  CIRCUMSTANCES. 

The  geography  of  a  country  often  exerts  an  indirect 
influence  upon  language.  Habits  of  a  peculiar  nature 
are  formed  by  the  climatic  circumstances,  and  habits 
modify  the  thought  of  a  writer,  and  hence  his  language. 
The  interpreter,  therefore,  ought  to  be  able  to  recognize 
and  take  account  of  the  impression  left  by  the  geograph- 
ical circumstances  upon  the  sacred  writings. 

A  knowledge  of  the  geography  of  Palestine  is  particu- 
larly necessary  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Allusions  to  Lebanon,  to  Carmel,  to  the  coun- 
tries of  Gilead  and  B;  shan,  to  the  Jordan,  to  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  to  the  neighboring  peoples  and  enemies  of  the 
Hebrews  are  constantly  met  with.  No  one,  moreover, 
would  imagine  himself  capable  of  comprehending  the 
life  of  Christ  without  having  some  idea  of  the  respective 


Social  Circumstances  of  the  Author.        129 

positions  of  Galilee,  Samaria,  Judea,  and  Perea.  These 
things  are  evident  ;  but  often  the  geographical  traces 
left  on  the  language  are  less  prominent  and  almost  un- 
perceived.  In  this  case  one  must  be  able  to  discern 
these  traces,  else  the  idea  that  they  conceal  will  be  lost. 

§67.   NATURAL  AND   ORDINARY   CIRCUMSTANCES. 

The  general  aspect  of  the  country,  the  vegetation,  cli- 
mate, domesticated  or  savage  animals,  the  rustic  usages 
and  pleasures  have  still  more  influence  upon  the  thought, 
and  hence  upon  the  expressions  employed  to  transmit 
it.  They  act  a  grand  part  in  the  development  of  the 
imagination,  in  the  poetry  of  language,  in  the  admiration 
of  nature.  And  in  proportion  as  the  writers  are  from  a 
rural  condition  and  of  simple  habits  will  this  influence 
be  marked  and  these  traces  be  profound.  The  inter- 
preter, in  order  to  appreciate  the  beauty  of  the  Old 
Testament  poetry,  must  employ  this  key  to  its  treasures. 
The  same  means  of  interpretation  is  necessary  in  study- 
ing the  New  Testament,  which,  although  being  less 
poetical,  reflects  something  of  the  nature  and  climate  of 
Palestine,  especially  in  its  more  familiar  parts. 

When  Christ  compares  the  kingdom  of  God  to  a  grain 
of  mustard  seed  (Matt.  xiii.  31) ;  when  He  points  to  the 
lilies  of  the  fields,  which,  in  spite  of  their  glory,  bloom 
to  be  cast  into  the  oven  (Matt.  vi.  28-30) ;  when  He 
appeals  to  the  atmospheric  signs  known  to  the  Pharisees 
(Matt.  xvi.  2,  3),  He  links  His  thoughts  to  the  natural 
circumstances  familiar  to  all.  The  force  of  these  com- 
parisons lies  in  the  fact  that  they  were  perfectly  under- 
stood by  those  to  whom  they  were  addressed.  There- 
fore the  interpreter,  in  order  to  appreciate  this  force, 
must  become  as  familiar,  as  were  the  Jews,  with  these 
circumstances. 
6* 


130  Biblical  Hermcncittics. 

When  the  apostles  speak  simply  and  naturally  of  their 
navigation,  of  their  fishing,  and  the  dangers  incurred 
upon  the  sea  of  Tiberius ;  when  they  measure  with  the 
eye  the  distance  of  the  bark  from  the  shore,  as  they 
throw  the  nets  to  the  right  or  the  left  side,  and  as  they 
count  their  fish  (John  xxi.  3—1 1),  we  have  other  natural 
circumstances  to  be  known,  other  impressions  and  habits^ 
created  by  these  circumstances,  to  be  studied.  There  is 
a  second  nature  to  be  analyzed  in  order  that  these  cir- 
cumstances may  be  taken  due  account  of  in  the  inter- 
pretation. At  this  point  the  natural  and  personal  cir- 
cumstances interpenetrate. 

The  usages  and  customs  of  the  country  exert  the  same 
kind  of  influence  upon  the  sacred  writings.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  understand  these  in  order  to  appreciate  such 
statements  as  the  following:  John  the  Baptist  fed  upon 
locusts  and  was  clothed  with  camel's  hair.  John  the 
Apostle  is  designated  as  the  disciple  who  at  table  re- 
clined upon  the  bosom  of  Jesus,  and  the  Saviour  is  rep- 
resented as  riding  in  triumph  to  Jerusalem  on  a  humble 
beast  of  burden.  These  customs  should  be  studied  by 
the  interpreter,  since  they  are  foreign  to  us  at  this  day 
and  yet  necessary  to  interpretation. 

§  68.   POLITICAL  POSITION. 

The  political  condition  of  a  people  leaves  profound 
traces  upon  their  national  writings,  causing  them,  at 
least,  to  assume  a  popular  and  social  character.  The 
New  Testament  will  present  the  needed  proof  of  this 
statement.  The  political  circumstances  of  Palestine,  at 
the  time  that  it  was  written,  are  of  great  importance  to 
the  correct  understanding  of  this  book.  Perhaps  it  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  no  other  department  of  bibli- 
cal archaeology  is  so  fruitful  of  results.     If  this  were  the 


Social  Circumstances  of  the  Author.       131 

place,  much  might  be  said  of  the  opposite  elements  that 
the  Roman  conquest  introduced,  of  the  contentions 
which  resulted  in  the  administration  of  this  era,  of  the 
peculiar  position  which,  in  this  respect,  was  occupied  by 
the  contemporaries  of  the  disciples.  The  opposition  of 
Jewish  usages  to  Roman  laws  is  very  frequently  observ- 
able in  the  Gospels  and  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

The  power  was  at  this  time  exercised  partly  by  the 
Roman  procurators,  partly  by  the  dynasty  of  the  Herods. 
This  singular  dynasty  was  always  placed  a  little  in  the 
shade  and  upon  the  second  plane  in  the  gospel  history, 
and  belonged  to  a  family  which  was  numerous,  cruel, 
vainglorious,  and  dissolute ;  Jewish  by  faith,  foreign  by 
race,  and  Roman  by  manners.  The  obligatory  Roman 
imposts  were  collected  at  the  same  time  with  the  volun- 
tary Jewish  taxes.  The  Roman  law  and  the  Jewish  law 
were  both  admitted  or  at  least  tolerated  ;  and  in  His  dis- 
courses Christ  makes  allusion  sometimes  to  the  one  and 
sometimes  to  the  other.  In  the  legal  processes  against 
the  Saviour  or  against  His  disciples,  we  find  always  a 
striking  contrast,  and  a  fixed  opposition  between  the 
political  toleration  of  the  Romans  and  the  fanatical  in- 
tolerance of  the  Jews.  These  oppositions  arc  all  due  to 
the  political  state  of  Palestine.  Hence  is  found  in  the 
Gospels  a  great  number  of  facts,  discourses,  and  debates 
which  are  veritable  enigmas  to  interpreters,  who  ignore 
this  political  condition  of  affairs.  Two  examples  will 
be  sufficient  to  show  the  utility  of  this  means  of  inter- 
pretation : 

1.  The  Saviour's  aversion  to  being  too  soon  recognized 
as  the  Messiah,  and  His  continual  commands  of  silen  e 
in  reference  to  His  life  and  miracles,  are  a  problem  which 
has  often  embarrassed  interpreters.  This  is  indeed  an 
inexplicable  problem  if  one  forgets  the  seditious  spirit 
of  the  Jews  and  their  irritation  under  the  Roman  domin- 


132  Biblical  Hcrmcneutics. 

ion.  Impatient  to  throw  off  this  foreign  yoke,  and  be- 
lieving themselves  assured  of  victory  under  the  leader- 
ship of  the  expected  Messiah,  they  would  have  hastened, 
had  not  Jesus  taken  this  precaution,  to  begin  a  revolution 
in  His  name.  They  would  thus  have  compromised  the 
character  of  Christ,  whose  kingdom  is  not  of  this  world, 
and  who  did  not  wish  to  have  His  death  tainted  with  the 
least  appearance  of  sedition. 

2.  The  contempt  and  hatred  into  which  the  Jewish 
custom-house  officers  had  fallen,  and  the  very  name  of 
tax-gatherer  being  used  as  synonymous  with  whatever  is 
odious  and  contemptible,  are  to  be  explained  only  by 
the  system  of  taxation  adopted  by  the  conquerors.  The 
customs  were  farmed  out  to  the  highest  bidder,  as  they 
were  in  France  in  the  era  of  the  Contractors.  The  in- 
ferior collectors  ground  down  their  fellow-countrymen 
with  more  rigor  than  foreign  collectors  would  have  dared 
to  exercise.  The  native  tax-gatherers,  by  their  cupidity, 
aided  the  Roman  oppression  and  were  hence  doomed  to 
national,  religious,  and  political  hatred. 

§69.   RELIGIOUS   CIRCUMSTANCES. 

Nothing  exerts  such  an  influence  on  the  language  of 
a  people  as  its  national  belief.  It  may  be  compared  to 
a  mould,  in  which  the  thoughts  and  images,  the  modes 
of  poetical  and  prose  expression,  receive  their  form  and 
character. 

In  the  interpretation  of  the  Bible  it  is  necessary  to 
take  account  both  of  this  general  influence  of  national 
belief  upon  language  and  of  the  personal  religious  senti- 
ments of  the  authors.  Moreover,  attention  must  be 
given  to  all  the  different  forms  of  worship  surrounding 
the  sacred  writers,  as  well  as  to  that  form  recognized  by 
the  Government.     Here  is  where  much  difficulty  orig- 


Social  Circumstances  of  the  A?ithor.       133 

inates.  Time  destroys  these  different  sects  and  obscures 
their  theories,  removes  idolatry  with  its  strange  and 
cruel  rites ;  and  thus  many  things  are  rendered  unintel- 
ligible to  us  which  were  perfectly  clear  to  the  first  readers 
of  the  Word.  The  Bible  abounds  in  allusions  to  the 
idolatrous  ceremonials,  religious  aberrations,  and  secta- 
rian doctrines  contemporary  with  the  authors.  These 
acted  their  part  in  the  intellectual  and  moral  sphere  of 
the  apostles'  times,  and  have  left  their  impress  upon  the 
Bible  language.  But  a  few  centuries  later,  all  this  had 
disappeared,  new  usages  of  language  had  been  formed 
under  the  influence  of  other  beliefs,  and  the  learned 
could  scarcely  comprehend  what  was  once  intelligible  to 
the  ignorant. 

This  state  of  affairs  imposes  serious  duties  upon  the 
interpreter.  He  should  study  all  the  religious  facts  which 
have  left  their  impress  upon  the  language  of  the  Script- 
ures. He  should  investigate,  not  only  the  influence  of 
the  true  belief,  but  also  the  idolatrous  practices  which, 
by  their  connection  or  contrast  with  the  true  faith,  have 
modified  in  some  degree  the  language,  history,  and  legis- 
lation of  the  Old  Testament.  In  order  to  comprehend 
the  mission  of  Moses  it  is  necessary  to  place  it  in  con- 
trast with  Egyptian  superstition,  from  which  he  was  to 
wean  the  Hebrews  ;  as  also  with  the  infamous  idolatries 
of  the  Canaanites  and  the  other  peoples  with  whom  they 
were  brought  in  contact.  The  interpreter  should  study, 
moreover,  the  numerous  traces  left  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment by  the  doctrines  of  the  Pharisees,  Sadducccs,  and 
even  the  Essencs,  an  important  faction  of  the  time,  al- 
though not  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  Examination 
must  also  be  made  of  the  Platonic  and  Cabalistic  theo- 
ries and  their  relations  to  Gnosticism  ;  for  they  exerted 
an  influence  upon  the  languages  of  St.  John  and  of  St. 
Paul.    However,  this  means  of  interpretation  should  not 


134  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

be  used  extravagantly,  any  more  than  it  should  be 
ignored  entirely.  It  should  be  confined  within  the  limits 
of  common-sense  and  just  criticism.  Some  scholars 
have  erred  in  being  too  proud  of  their  knowledge  of 
these  opposing  theories,  and  have  endeavored  to  apply 
this  hermeneutical  resource  too  universally.  Others,  at 
the  same  time,  being  hostile  to  the  doctrine  of  inspira- 
tion, have  transformed  it  into  a  weapon  for  the  over- 
throw of  Christianity.  To  rationalists  of  this  class,  St. 
John  appears  a  Gnostic ;  St.  Paul  only  a  Pharisee  found- 
ing a  new  sect ;  and  the  Saviour  himself  only  a  Rabbin 
more  independent  and  more  consistent  than  his  contem- 
poraries. In  the  whole  field  of  Historical  Hermeneutics 
there  is  perhaps  no  series  of  ideas  and  facts  so  impor- 
tant, so  useful  to  interpretation,  and  yet  so  easy  to  be 
abused  and  misapplied,  as  the  social  circumstances  and 
(under  these)  the  religious  circumstances. 

§  70.  EFFECTS  PRODUCED  UPON  THE  WRITERS,  AND 
TRACES  LEFT  IN  THE  SACRED  WRITINGS,  BY 
THESE   SOCIAL   CIRCUMSTANCES. 

Under  this  heading  we  exhibit  a  succinct  statement 
of  the  modifications  produced  by  these  circumstances, 
although  the  examples  already  given  may  seem  sufficient : 

(a).  The  social  circumstances  gave  rise  to  institutions, 
with  which  the  interpreter  ought  to  be  acquainted,  inas- 
much as  they  modified  forms  of  expression.  Compare 
what  is  said  above,  of  the  influence  of  political  circum- 
stances upon  the  civil  position  of  the  contemporaries  of 
Christ. 

(b).  The  social  circumstances  are  the  source  of  many 
images,  allusions,  and  figures  scattered  through  the 
poetical,  oratorical,  and  even  didactic  portions  of  the 
Word.     These  figurative  references  are  appropriate  and 


Social  Circumstances  of  the  Author.       135 

expressive  when  they  are  understood,  but  vague,  or  ab- 
solutely lost,  or  even  a  source  of  error,  when  their  origin, 
nature,  and  object  are  ignored.  Two  examples  will  con- 
firm this  assertion  in  a  striking  manner.  Some  one  asked 
Jesus  if  He  would  pay  the  tribute  (Matt.  xvii.  24-27), 
and  He  paid  it,  at  the  same  time  observing  that  ordi- 
narily kings  do  not  exact  tribute  of  their  children.  This 
passage  is  unintelligible,  and  the  lesson  it  contains 
entirely  lost  to  him  who  is  ignorant  of  the  special 
character  of  the  didrachma.  This  was  a  voluntary  and 
religious  tax  paid  by  the  Jews  for  the  expenses  of  their 
worship.  From  this  circumstance  may  be  understood 
the  request,  and  not  demand,  of  the  collectors  and  the 
true  force  of  our  Saviour's  reasoning,  which  contains  a 
positive  declaration  of  His  divine  nature.  In  I  Cor.  ix. 
24-27,  Paul  addresses  to  his  readers  an  earnest  exhorta- 
tion to  perseverance,  renunciation,  and  effort.  He  makes 
allusion  constantly,  and  more  or  less  clearly,  to  the  ath- 
letic games  of  Greece,  which  were  certainly  familiar  to 
the  Corinthians.  The  lesser  details,  as  indeed  the  whole 
of  the  passage,  gain  much  beauty  by  being  observed 
from  the  stand-point  of  the  race-ground  and  the  arena. 

(c).  The  religious  circumstances  were  the  occasion  of 
many  direct  or  indirect  polemics  against  idolatrous  or 
dangerous  theories.  These  polemics  are  necessarily  much 
less  clear  to  us  than  to  those  to  whom  they  were  origi- 
nally addressed.  In  order  to  comprehend  that  which 
was  clear  to  the  first  readers  of  the  Bible,  we  must  know 
what  they  knew — the  errors  that  the  writers  had  in  view. 
It  is  sufficient  to  recall  the  attacks  made  by  the  prophets 
upon  idolatry,  the  references  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount 
to  the  dangerous  teaching  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees, 
and  the  indirect  argument  contained  in  the  epistle  to 
the  Colossians  against  the  Essenes  of  Asia  Minor. 

(d).  The  change  of  the  social  circumstances  often  alters 


136  Biblical  Hermeneuties. 

the  signification  of  the  words  that  they  have  created. 
Reference  can  be  made,  for  example,  to  the  present  use 
of  the  words  Priest,  Deacon,  and  Bishop,  as  compared 
with  the  literal  sense  of  7rpea[3vrepog,  did,Kovoq;  and  znionoTrog. 

§  71.    MEANS  TO   BE   EMPLOYED   BY  THE   INTERPRETER. 

It  will  be  understood  that  the  task  of  the  interpreter, 
so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  social  circumstances  of  the 
writers,  is  burdensome  and  difficult.  There  are  three 
elements  of  success,  three  means  of  accomplishing  this 
task,  to  which  we  desire  to  direct  attention : 

1.  The  study  of  Biblical  Archaeology.  The  necessity 
of  this  study  is  demonstrated  by  universal  experience. 
Oriental  usages,  the  manners  of  the  patriarchs,  the  Mosaic 
legislation,  sacred  geography,  and  Egyptian  antiquities, 
are  essential  elements  in  interpretation,  and  therefore 
should  be  studied  with  care. 

2.  A  philosophical  method  and  critical  talent  are  also 
essential  in  order  to  make  use  of  this  study  with  discern- 
ment. Tact  and  judgment  can  not  be  acquired,  it  is 
true ;  but  those  who  understand  the  importance  of  the 
study  can,  at  least,  hold  themselves  under  judicious  re- 
straint. All  can  take  account  of  the  times  and  the  local- 
ities in  which  a  writing  was  composed.  Every  one  has 
sufficient  tact,  if  he  would  use  it,  not  to  imagine  tljat  the 
manners  of  the  patriarchs  are  sufficiently  explained  by  a 
Greek  custom,  a  passage  in  the  Old  Testament  by  a  verse 
in  Virgil,  or  the  discourses  of  our  Saviour  by  the  fantastic 
dreams  of  the  Talmud.  Every  one  has  sufficient  judg- 
ment to  seek  in  the  East  for  the  solution  of  the  enigmas 
of  the  East,  and  not  to  commit  the  anachronism  of  put- 
ting the  sacred  authors  in  correspondence  with  posterior 
sources,  or  sources  without  relation  to  their  own  nation. 

3.  The  assiduous,  complete,  and  continued  reading  of 


Social  Circumstances  of  the  Author.       137 

the  Bible  is  very  essential.  This  reading,  as  it  is  neces- 
sary to  the  theologian  in  explaining  all  the  ideas  of  the 
Bible,  is  especially  useful  in  order  to  appreciate  social 
circumstances  and  their  influence.  It  is  an  internal  in- 
vestigation, which,  by  way  of  analysis,  enables  one  to 
recognize  and  authenticate  social  circumstances  and  to 
judge  of  the  truthfulness  of  the  explanations  given.  It 
furnishes  to  the  interpreter  all  the  facts  and  a  knowledge 
of  all  the  details  favorable  or  unfavorable  to  each  expla- 
nation. This  constant  communion  with  the  sacred  vol- 
ume is  also  the  most  effectual  preservative  against  those 
imaginary  hypotheses  which  are  directly  opposed  to 
archaeology,  hermeneutics,  and  faith. 


138  Biblical  Hermenentics. 


SECTION   THIRD. 

PHILOLOGICAL  HABITS  OF  THE  AUTHORS. 

§  72.   GENERALLY   CONSIDERED. 

Among  the  historical  circumstances  which  influence 
the  authors  to  be  interpreted,  should  be  placed  promi- 
nently the  philological  habits  of  the  authors  themselves. 
It  will  be  understood  that  the  use,  either  exact  or  inex- 
act, of  the  language  of  a  writer,  must  exert  an  influence 
upon  the  rules  by  which  his  writings  are  to  be  inter- 
preted. 

These  habits  pertain  strictly  to  Historical  Hermeneu- 
tics,  not  only  because  they  are  facts,  but  also  because 
they  have  their  causes  and  explanations  in  history. 
These  philological  circumstances,  so  far  as  they  pertain 
to  the  sacred  authors,  may  be  summed  up  in  two  general 
facts,  as  important  as  they  are  incontestable : 
*  1.  The  language  of  the  sacred  writers  is  wanting  in 
precision. 

2.  It  moreover  abounds  in  figures. 

A.    LANGUAGE  WANTING  IN   PRECISION. 

§  73.   A   PRIORI  :    AUTHORS  AND   LANGUAGE. 

Looking  at  the  position,  the  nationality,  the  circum- 
stances of  the  sacred  authors  from  an  a  priori  stand- 
point, we  ought  not  to  demand  of  them  an  exact  and 
precise  language.  Ancient  authors  generally  use  a  lan- 
guage less  precise  and  possess  a  method  less  rigorous 
than  modern  writers.  But  in  addition  to  this  the  sacred 
writers  were  : 


Philological  Habits  of  the  Authors.      139 


(a).  Orientals.  From  this  results  almost  necessarily 
that  their  language  is  highly  colored  rather  than  exact, 
more  fervent  than  rigorous  and  formulated. 

(b).  Jews,  who  were  not  a  speculative  people,  addicted 
to  philosophical  research. 

(e).  Uneducated  men.  The  majority  of  the  sacred 
writers  were  men  of  the  people.  This  fact  should  cause 
us  to  expect  a  language  more  vivid  and  animated  than 
exact  and  methodical.  St.  Paul,  the  most  cultivated  of 
the  New  Testament  authors,  said  of  himself  that  he  was 
i6ia>T7]g  tu  koyo)  (2  Cor.  xi.  6). 

Thus,  from  an  a  priori  investigation  we  might  expect 
an  energetic  and  animated,  rather  than  a  scholarly,  lan- 
guage, in  the  Bible. 

§  74.   STYLE   OF   THE   BIBLE. 

I.  We  shall  first  make  a  few  detailed  observations  in 
regard  to  the  style  of  the  Scriptures : 

(a).  In  the  greater  part  of  the  sacred  books,  at  least  in 
those  of  the  New  Testament,  we  find  no  trace  of  labored 
style,  no  effort  in  the  direction  of  artistic  writing.  Par- 
ticularly in  the  doctrinal  writings — those  of  Matthew, 
John,  Paul,  Peter,  and  James — there  is  nothing  of  this 
kind.  Paul,  the  most  remarkable  of  these,  expresses 
himself  in  a  style  which  does  not  conform  to  the  rhetori- 
cal method  of  the  schools.  His  writings  betray  in  each 
line  the  struggle  which  existed  between  the  grandeur  of 
his  ideas,  the  ardor  of  his  sentiments,  and  his  inability 
to  express  them  in  words  of  sufficient  clearness  and 
force.  To  transform  these  phrases  into  exact  formulas 
and  complete  transmissions  of  thought,  would  be  to  ig- 
nore the  nature  of  his  style. 

(b).  The  Scriptures  appear  to  be  designed  generally  to 
operate  upon  the  imagination  and  the  heart  rather  than 
the   intellect.       The   poetical   and   oratorical    styles   are 


140  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


often  encountered,  particularly  in  the  most  important 
books.  The  authors  give  frequent  evidence  of  emotion 
and  labor  to  move  their  readers.  In  these  circumstances 
there  is  much  which  is  necessary  to  mankind,  but  which 
excludes  the  possibility  of  precise  and  philosophical  lan- 
guage. 

(V).  The  abstract  and  dogmatic  ideas  are  often  ex- 
pressed in  the  Bible  by  figures.  This  gives  both  beauty 
and  the  possibility  of  obscurity  to  the  style  of  the  sacred 
volume. 

An  example  of  this  is  found  in  the  Old  Testament  in 
the  manner  in  which  the  attributes  of  God  are  expressed. 
His  Omnipotence  and  Omnipresence  often  strike  the  im- 
agination of  the  Hebrews,  and  are  ordinarily  expressed 
with  the  aid  of  anthropomorphism  by  attributing  hands 
and  eyes  to  God  for  these  attributes.  Even  in  reference  to 
His  Justice  and  Goodness,  God  is  represented  as  repent- 
ing, being  angry  and  appeased.  We  are  accustomed  to  em- 
ploy the  same  mode  of  speech,  referring  to  the  patience, 
protection,  and  severity  of  God,  which  ideas  are  certainly 
anthropomorphic.  There  is  no  precise  word  in  Hebrew 
to  express  eternity,  either  posterior  or  anterior.  In  de- 
fault of  a  better  mode  of  expression,  the  writers  employ 
certain  substantives  and  particles  of  a  restricted  sense, 
which  can  indicate  the  idea  but  vaguely.     Thus  Qb")2> 

T 

"  hidden  time  "  ;  &!&>  "  what  is  before,"  "  olden  time  "  ; 

"1$,  "  a  passing,  progress  in  space,  also  duration  in  time  " ; 

f!S,  "  time  as  passing,"  derived  from  a  root  signifying  to 

pass  away,  have  all  been  employed.  The  ideas  of  the 
Bible,  which  are  essentially  doctrinal,  those  which  per- 
tain to  the  Gospel  and  relate  to  salvation,  are,  in  default 
of  words  sufficiently  precise,  expressed  in  figurative 
terms  as  <Tw?/;  diroXvTpcjoig^  vio'heaia;  etc.     An  interesting 


Philological  I  Lib  its  of  the  Authors.       141 


study  from  this  point  of  view  may  be  made  of  1  Cor. 
xv.  39-50,  where  the  apostle  seeks  to  express  in  popular 
and  figurative  language  matters  at  once  dogmatic  and 
philosophic,  of  which  he  finally  gives  a  clear  and  brief, 
but  necessarily  negative  summation. 

2.  The  general  impression  of  the  whole  biblical  style 
will  lead  us  to  the  same  result.  No  one  can  arise  from 
the  perusal  of  the  Bible  without  being  struck  with  the 
animated  and  popular  tone  of  its  didactic  teaching,  its 
oratorical  passages  expressing  the  eloquence  of  the 
heart  and  its  poetry  brimful  of  emotion.  No  one  can 
fail  to  discover  that  the  writers,  of  whatever  class,  pre- 
fer expressions  which  are  fervent  and  animated,  rather 
than  formulated  and  precise.  The  prophets  are  poets, 
the  poets  are  prophets ;  the  historians  are  orators,  and 
the  orators  historians,  but  no  one  is  a  rhetorician. 

It  is  fortunate,  therefore,  that  the  sacred  writers  did 
not  pretend  to  exactness  of  expression  and  precision  of 
thought.  God  is  wiser  than  men.  The  human  critic 
would  affirm  a  priori  that  Revelation  ought  to  be  for- 
mulated and  codified.  Then  it  might  have  fixed  itself  in 
the  memory  and  presented  itself  acceptably  to  the  intel- 
lect, but  it  would  have  remained  forever  foreign  to  the 
heart  and  unintelligible  to  the  masses,  whom  it  is  neces- 
sary to  seek  and  save.  The  grand  object  of  divine  truth 
is  not  to  lodge  systems  in  the  mind,  but  to  enkindle  af- 
fections in  the  heart. 

§  75.   RULES   ARISING  FROM   THE   PECULIAR   NATURE 
OF  THE   STYLE. 

It  is  difficult  to  deduce  from  the  subject  of  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph  any  positive  hermeneutical  rules. 
Rules  can  be  derived  only  from  uniform  principles  and 
permanent   facts;  but  there  is  nothing  uniform  in  this 


142  Biblical  Hermcueutics. 

case.     Three  general  directions,  however,  may  be  given, 
founded  upon  this  variability  itself : 

1.  The  interpreter  should  never  press  the  sense  of  the 
words,  at  least  when  it  is  not  evident  that  in  the  partic- 
ular passage  with  which  he  is  engaged  the  author  has  in 
an  exceptional  manner  formulated  his  idea.  The  in- 
terpreter ought  to  proportionate,  so  to  speak,  the  rigor 
of  his  interpretation  to  the  more  or  less  positive  and  di- 
dactic character  of  the  book  and  passage  before  him. 

2.  The  interpreter  should  always  endeavor  to  discover 
the  meaning  of  the  phrase  to  be  interpreted,  and  for  this 
purpose  he  should  seek  as  much  aid  as  possible  from  the 
context.  This  is  the  best  means  of  discovering  the  real 
idea  of  the  author,  and  of  remedying  the  irregularity  of 
his  style. 

3.  In  order  to  comprehend  the  language  of  Scripture, 
it  is  necessary  to  receive  on  our  own  souls  the  impres- 
sion it  was  intended  to  produce.  Hence  we  should 
study  it,  not  only  with  logic  and  erudition,  but  also  and 
especially  with  religious  sensibility.  To  understand  the 
Bible,  the  student  must  associate  himself  as  far  as  pos- 
sible with  the  masses  to  whom  the  message  was  origi- 
nally addressed.  He  must  mingle  with  that  multitude 
which  was  reached  and  transformed  by  the  voice  of  the 
Saviour  and  His  apostles. 


B.  FIGURATIVE   LANGUAGE. 

§  j6.   FACTS. 

The  language  of  the  Bible  is,  in  many  instances, 
highly  figurative.  It  should  be  remembered,  however, 
that  this  is  no  concession  to  those  who  deny  the  inspira- 
tion of  the  Word,  since  a  figure  or  parable  may  be  just 
as  much  inspired  as  a  rigid  syllogism. 


Philological  Habits  of  the  Authors.       143 

All  the  sacred  writers  employ  figures,  although  in  dif- 
ferent degrees,  according  to  the  nature  of  their  subject 
and  their  own  mental  characteristics.  Moses  and  Da- 
vid, Solomon  and  St.  Paul,  Isaiah  and  St.  John  resemble 
each  other  in  this  respect.  Our  Saviour,  particularly, 
was  accustomed  to  clothe  His  thoughts  in  figurative  and 
popular  language.  When  He  gives  in  a  succession  of 
parables  the  history  of  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven,  and 
describes  the  happiness  of  believers  who  are  to  sup  with 
Him  there ;  when  He  commands  His  disciples  to  beware 
of  the  leaven  of  the  Pharisees,  and  promises  the  waters 
of  the  river  of  life  to  thirsty  souls ;  when  He  calls  His 
body  a  temple,  which,  being  destroyed,  He  will  raise 
again  in  three  days,  and  when  He  gives  the  name  of  this 
body  broken  for  our  sins  to  the  bread  which  is  only  the 
emblem — it  is  by  striking,  touching,  pathetic,  and  sub- 
lime figures  that  He  seizes  the  attention,  fixes  the  mem- 
ory, and  attracts  the  heart. 

The  figures  ordinarily  used  by  the  sacred  writers  are 
derived  from  objects  familiar  to  their  readers — as  sacred 
history,  the  pastoral  life,  the  nature  of  the  locality,  its 
beauties,  and  its  phenomena.  Hence  the  frequent 
metaphors,  the  tropes  of  all  kinds,  and  more  especially 
the  parables  of  Jesus,  make  the  truth  vivid,  ingenious, 
attractive,  and  fruitful,  even  familiar,  to  the  Orientals. 
Parables  are  as  frequent  in  the  Talmud  as  in  the  Gos- 
pels, and  by  this  single  circumstance  the  language  of 
the  Rabbins  has  some  relation  to  that  of  the  Saviour. 
Sometimes  the  truth  of  the  Bible  is  clothed  in  a  form  al- 
most dramatic,  as  in  Isa.  xliv.  and  James  ii. 

Poetry  makes  its  appearance  with  its  raiment  embroi- 
dered with  beautiful  figures,  and  throws  its  rich  mantle 
over  many  portions  of  the  sacred  truth.  It  shows  its 
influence  not  simply  in  the  style  and  deductions,  but 
may  be  also  discovered  in  the  general  arrangement  and 


144  Biblical  HermenetUics. 

plan  of  a  Psalm  or  of  an  entire  prophecy,  as  in  the  50th 
or  107th  Psalm,  or  in  the  book  of  Joel. 

Some  traces  of  allegories  are  also  found  in  the  Bible, 
and  upon  these  some  remarks  are  necessary.  Allegory 
is  very  attractive  to  the  Oriental  mind.  All  the  compo- 
sitions of  Eastern  lands  are  interwoven  with  allegories, 
which  are  generally  developed  and  applied  at  considera- 
ble length.  It  would  be  naturally  expected  that  traces 
of  Oriental  allegories  should  be  found  in  the  Bible,  which 
originated  in  a  country  thronging  with  them.  The  so- 
briety, however,  with  which  they  are  used  is  worthy  of 
remark,  and  may  be  regarded  as  an  effect  and  token  of 
divine  inspiration.  They  are  rarely  used  and  always 
brief.  The  author  never  follows  them  to  a  fanciful  con- 
clusion, in  the  manner  of  the  Orientals,  in  order  to  show 
the  brilliancy  of  his  imagination.  A  Bible  allegory  is 
little  more  than  a  series  of  allusions  to  the  same  figure, 
designed  to  reach  the  intelligence  by  riveting  the  atten- 
tion. It  is  always  abandoned  before  it  can  become  a 
mere  play  of  fancy  either  to  the  writer  or  readers.  Refer 
to  Isa.  v.  1-6  ;  Psalm  Ixxx.  ;  Mark  xii.  1-8  ;  I  Cor.  iii. 
1 1— 1 5  ;  v.  6-8. 

§  77.   CONSEQUENCES   TO   HERMENEUTICS. 

The  interpretation  of  the  Bible  is  rendered  difficult  by 
its  figurative  language.  There  is  danger  of  attributing 
too  much  to  the  imagination  of  the  writer  or  of  exciting 
too  highly  the  fancy  of  the  interpreter.  The  work  of 
Hermeneutics  is  to  bring  back  the  figurative  language 
of  the  Bible  to  positive  ideas.  Entering  into  this  work 
there  are  two  questions  to  be  decided  :  (1)  whether  the 
language  is  or  is  not  figurative ;  (2)  and,  if  it  is,  to  deter- 
mine its  true  sense.  The  topics  under  this  section,  there- 
fore, are  twofold.  The  investigation  of  the  figuie,  and 
the  investigation  of  the  figurative  sense. 


Philological  Habits  of  the  Authors.       145 


§  78.   INVESTIGATION   OF   FIGURATIVE   LANGUAGE. 

This  investigation  can  not  be  successfully  accomplished 
by  intellectual  science  alone.  Judgment  and  good  faith, 
critical  tact  and  impartiality,  are  also  necessary.  A  few 
general  indications  are  all  that  can  be  given  in  this  con- 
nection. 

1.  A  priori,  (a).  The  probability  that  the  language 
is  figurative  is  strong  in  the  poetical  or  sententious  writ- 
ings, and  also  in  the  oratorical  and  popular  discourses. 
Generally  this  probability  is  augmented  when  it  is  a  fair 
supposition  that  the  writer  has  been  induced  by  his  situ- 
ation, his  subject,  or  his  object,  to  make  use  of  such  lan- 
guage, (b).  There  is  a  probability  of  the  same  kind,  but 
much  stronger  when  the  passage  under  examination  is 
animated  and  highly  wrought,  and  seems  to  make  allu- 
sion to  objects  of  another  nature. 

2.  A  posteriori,  (a).  There  is  a  probability  still  greater 
when  the  literal  sense  would  be  absurd,  as  in  these  words  : 
"  This  is  my  body  "  ;  or  contrary  to  the  instruction  of 
Scripture,  as  the  promise  of  a  supper  in  the  kingdom  of 
heaven ;  or  unworthy  of  God,  as  when  the  Bible  attrib- 
utes to  Him  the  organs  and  passions  of  men  ;  or  im- 
moral, as  in  the  command  that  is  given  to  Hosea  the 
prophet  to  espouse  a  prostitute  ;  or,  in  short,  in  evident 
opposition  to  the  context  and  the  object  of  the  writer. 
(b).  All  these  probabilities,  however,  are  still  insufficient. 
It  is  further  necessary  to  examine  the  passage  in  all  its 
details,  critically,  exegetically,  and  faithfully.  The  figu- 
rative sense  must  be  sustained  by  all  these  processes  be- 
fore it  can  be  relied  upon  as  the  true  interpretation. 


146  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

§  79.   INVESTIGATION   OF  THE   FIGURATIVE   SENSE. 

(a).  The  Principle, — The  existence  of  figurative  lan- 
guage in  a  given  passage  once  determined,  the  task  of 
the  interpreter  consists  in  unveiling  the  idea  which  is 
often  obscured  by  the  figure.  The  very  nature  of  figura- 
tive language  thus  renders  difficult  the  discovery  of  the 
principle  idea.  The  same  difficulty  is  experienced  by 
him  who  studies  hieroglyphics,  paintings,  sculpture,  and 
whatever  conveys  an  idea  figuratively  expressed.  In  all 
such  cases  there  is  danger  of  neglecting  the  essential,  in 
order  to  scrutinize  the  secondary,  idea.  This  is  because 
the  essential  idea  is  abstract,  invisible,  and  vague,  while 
the  secondary  idea  is  composed  of  visible  and  prominent 
traits  which  excite  attention  and  invite  examination. 
Thus  in  the  parabolic  and  figurative  discourses  of  the 
Bible,  there  is  a  temptation  to  be  preoccupied  with  the 
depicted  objects,  the  detailed  descriptions,  the  persons 
brought  upon  the  scene,  and  the  successive  acts,  instead 
of  dwelling  upon  the  thought  and  lesson  which  were  the 
absorbing  idea  in  the  mind  of  the  sacred  author. 

(b).  The  Facts. — A  careful  examination  of  the  biblical 
language,  figures,  and  facts  will  ordinarily  be  sufficient 
to  prevent  these  misconceptions.  The  very  details, 
upon  which  the  interpreter  might  be  tempted  to  place 
too  much  importance,  are  frequently  of  use  in  determin- 
ing the  general  idea.  They  are  often  of  such  a  nature 
as  to  exclude  all  possible  symbolization.  When  the 
Saviour  compares  the  coming  of  the  Son  of  Man  to  that 
of  a  thief  in  the  night,  and  the  mercy  of  His  Father  to 
the  impatience  of  an  unjust  judge,  it  is  evident  that  such 
details  are  out  of  all  harmony  with  the  instruction,  and 
have  for  their  object  only  the  completion  of  the  figure 
by  rendering  it  recognizable  and  striking.  Sometimes, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  details  which  appear  necessary  to 


Philological  Habits  of  the  Author's.       147 

complete  the  figure  are  intentionally  omitted,  as  if  to 
instruct  us  to  seek  for  the  essential  idea  elsewhere  than 
in  the  details.  The  conversation  between  Jesus  and 
Nicodemus  is  particularly  instructive  in  this  respect. 
The  Saviour  said  to  Nicodemus  (John  iii.  3),  that  it 
is  necessary  to  be  "  born  again  "  in  order  to  see  the 
kingdom  of  heaven.  The  Pharisee  could  not  compre- 
hend this  mysterious  and  brief  figure  and  demands  the 
details.  "  How  can  a  man  be  born  when  he  is  old  ?  " 
To  which  our  Saviour  responds  :  "  Except  a  man  be 
born  of  water  and  the  Spirit  he  can  not  enter  into  the 
kingdom  of  God."  When  (John  i.  51)  He  affirms  that 
the  disciples  should  see  heaven  open  and  the  angels  as- 
cending and  descending  upon  the  Son  of  Man,  He  ac- 
complishes the  same  thing,  while  He  designedly  envelopes 
the  thought  in  imagery  sublime,  striking,  and  clear  as  to 
the  general  idea,  but  vague  and  intangible  as  to  the  details. 
There  are,  moreover,  many  cases  wherein  the  figure, 
although  being  considerably  developed,  can  not  be  pressed 
without  being  attended  with  inaccuracy  and  confusion  in 
the  indicated  relations.  In  no  place,  perhaps,  is  this 
more  prominent  than  in  Matt.  xi.  16,  where  Jesus  com- 
pares the  then  present  generation  "  to  children  calling 
unto  their  fellows  :  '  We  have  piped  unto  you  and  ye 
have  not  danced,  etc'  "  Now  the  connection  proves 
that  not  the  children  who  cried,  but  the  companions  to 
whom  they  cried,  were  in  the  eyes  of  Jesus  the  types  of 
the  generation  which  he  censured.  In  John  x.  1-16, 
Jesus  speaks  figuratively  of  what  He  is  to  believers, 
whom  He  designates  as  His  sheep.  But  to  this  general 
figure  are  attached  several  particular  and  irreconcilable 
images.  At  one  place  He  is  represented  as  the  door 
through  which  the  sheep  and  shepherds,  but  not  the 
thieves,  enter  ;  further  on,  He  is  the  shepherd  himself — 
the  true  and  good  shepherd — in  opposition  to  the  thieves 


148  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

and  mercenaries.  In  all  these — as  in  all  such — cases,  the 
details  of  the  figure  must  not  be  arbitrarily  pressed. 
This  discussion  may  be  concluded  with  the  words  of  St. 
Augustine  (De  civ.  Dei,  xvi.  2)  :  "  Non  sane  omnia  quae 
gesta  narrantur  aliquid  etiam  significare  putanda  sunt, 
sed  propter  ilia  quae  aliquid  significant,  etiam  ea  quae 
nihil  significant,  attexuntur." 

(c).  Rules  and  Applications. — In  the  investigation  of 
the  figurative  sense,  therefore,  the  interpreter  is  required 
to  discover  the  principal  idea,  without  placing  too  much 
importance  upon  the  details.  This  rule  is  of  easy  appli- 
cation when  the  figures  are  simply  and  briefly  indicated, 
as  when  Jesus  says:  "This  is  my  body,"  or  "Destroy 
this  temple."  The  same  is  true  in  metaphors  and  other 
abbreviated  figures,  where  the  point  of  contact  between 
the  thought  and  the  comparison  is  so  prominent  that 
one  can  not  be  mistaken.  An  example  of  this  is  found 
in  Rom.  viii.  17,  where  Paul,  in  a  transport  of  assurance 
and  faith,  writes :  "  If  children,  then  heirs  ;  heirs  of  God 
and  joint  heirs  with  Christ !  "  Every  one  discovers  that 
the  apostle  is  here  speaking  only  of  the  advantages  that 
believers,  united  to  Christ,  receive  together  with  Him 
from  their  common  Father.  The  metaphor  contained 
in  the  word  "heir"  would  become  absurd  if  pressed  to 
completion,  as  it  would  imply  the  death  of  the  Father 
before  we  could  enter  upon  the  inheritance. 

But  the  application  of  this  rule  is  by  no  means  so 
simple  when  the  figure  is  prolonged.  In  this  case,  the 
main  idea  must  first  be  found  and  considered  of  the  first 
importance,  then  the  secondary  thoughts  should  be  care- 
fully studied  and  wisely  grouped  around  it.  In  allego- 
ries, particularly,  many  of  the  details  have  each  an  im- 
portant sense,  worthy  of  influencing  the  general  result. 
In  the  parable  (Mark,  xii.)  of  the  vine-dressers  who  kill 
first  the  servants  of  the  master  and  then  his  heir,  it  is 


Philological  Habits  of  the  Authors.      149 

clear  that  the  pains  which  the  master  took  with  the  vine< 
yard,  the  servants  he  employed,  the  final  mission  of  his 
son,  and  the  crime  of  the  vine-dressers,  are  successively 
of  individual  importance  and  worthy  of  individual  study, 
as  illustrative  of  the  mercy  of  God  toward  the  ungrate- 
ful Jews.  This  is  therefore  an  allegory  and  not  strictly 
a  parable.  But  to  dwell  upon  the  number  of  the  serv- 
ants employed,  to  insist  upon  the  hedge  planted,  the 
wine-press  dug,  and  the  tower  erected  by  the  precaution 
of  the  master,  as  upon  so  many  distinct  ideas  of  impor- 
tance, would  be  to  misconceive  the  intention  of  the 
Saviour,  and  make  His  instruction  food  for  fancy  and 
not  for  faith. 

In  the  parables,  the  general  idea  is  ordinarily  the  only 
one  to  be  retained,  while  the  details  ought  to  be  left 
aside.  The  first  supposition  should  be  that  a  figurative 
passage  is  a  parable,  since  allegories  are  rare  and  brief 
in  the  Bible.  To  speak  generally,  the  allegorical  spirit 
is  eminently  anti-biblical.  It  possesses  something  ingen- 
ious, fanciful,  and  curious  which  does  not  conduce  to 
edification,  and  is  strongly  opposed  to  the  clear,  practical, 
and  subjective  tendencies  of  the  sacred  writers.  It  is 
of  great  importance,  therefore,  not  to  transform  parables 
into  allegories,  as  some  have  endeavored  to  do  in  refer- 
ence to  the  parable  of  the  ten  virgins  (Matt,  xxv.)  This 
can  not  be  done  without  mixing  false  and  curious  ideas 
with  simple  and  divine  truth. 

Special  importance  should  be  attached  to  this  last 
rule,  since  there  is  a  great  tendency  at  present,  in  the 
popular  system  of  Bible  study  and  Bible  readings,  to 
please  the  fancy  rather  than  instruct  the  heart.  The 
Word  of  God  is  not  a  jewel-casket  from  which  radiants 
may  be  taken  to  adorn  the  brow,  but  a  store-house  from 
which  spiritual  food  and  drink  should  be  derived  to 
nourish  the  soul. 


150  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

(d).  Practical  Counsels. —  The  rules  above  given  are 
still  insufficient,  and  in  some  cases  only  remove  the  diffi- 
culty farther  back. 

We  must  add  a  few  practical  suggestions,  attention  to 
which  will  be  of  use  in  directing  the  interpreter. 

1.  He  should  make  it  his  constant  duty  to  consult  the 
context.  Often  the  occasion  or  cause  of  the  parable  is 
sufficient  to  determine  its  object,  and  thus  to  indicate  its 
limits.  Sometimes  the  sacred  author  takes  pains  to  give 
a  summary  of  his  thought  in  the  context.  In  Luke, 
1 2th  chapter,  36th  to  39th  verses,  Christ  employs  two 
very  different  figures  in  order  to  enforce  diligence  in 
awaiting  His  return.  He  compares  Himself  to  the  mas- 
ter who  returns  from  the  wedding,  expecting  to  find  his 
servants  awake,  and  to  the  thief  who  surprises  in  the 
night  the  ignorant  or  imprudent  family.  Then  He  re- 
capitulates the  ideas,  differently  expressed  in  figure,  but 
identical  in  reality,  in  these  words :  "  Be  ye  therefore 
ready  also,  for  the  Son  of  Man  will  come  $  wpa  6v  do/ctVe." 
Thus  the  idea  of  the  figures  is  explained  by  the  speaker 
himself.  To  the  same  effect  in  Matthew  xxv.  13,  Jesus 
concludes  the  parable  of  the  Virgins  with  these  words: 
"  Watch  therefore,  for  ye  know  neither  the  day  nor  the 
hour  wherein  the  Son  of  Man  cometh."  This  explains 
the  whole  parable  by  giving  a  summary  of  its  main 
ideas,  and  prevents  its  being  transformed  into  an  alle- 
gory. The  context  is  as  useful,  therefore,  in  discovering 
the  figurative,  as  the  didactic,  sense. 

2.  Nothing-  will  better  conduce  to  the  formation  of 
good  sense  and  critical  tact  in  the  interpreter  than  the 
habitual  reading  of  the  Bible.  This  will  qualify  him  for 
appreciating  the  figures  with  which  he  so  frequently 
meets  in  it.  Each  language  as  well  as  each  country  has 
its  peculiar  tropes,  used  so  frequently  as  to  be  recognized 
at    first    sight.     The     English    language,    for    example, 


Philological  Habits  of  the  Authors.       151 

abounds  in  expressions  which  were  originally  metaphor- 
ical, but  have  become  ordinary  by  frequent  usage.  No 
one  imagines  himself  to  be  composing  poetry,  when  he 
speaks  of  a  dilapidated  fortune,  or  a  shelter  from  danger, 
or  the  rising  of  the  sun.  These  concealed  figures  are 
much  more  frequent  even  in  the  sacred  languages ;  and 
it  is  the  habitual  reader  of  the  Bible  who  is  able  to  de- 
tect them.  The  prophets  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  par- 
ticular, make  repeated  use  of  certain  favorite  images, 
which  were  originally  sublime  and  pathetic,  but  have  be- 
come common  by  familiar  use.  Although  intelligible  to 
the  first  readers  of  the  Bible,  they  are  obscure  to  us, 
and  can  be  understood  only  by  reading  and  re-reading 
the  writings  which  contain  them.  Thus  the  commotions 
in  the  heavens,  of  the  stars  and  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
simply  announce  great  political  and  social  revolutions. 
The  peaceful  dwelling  of  the  ferocious  beasts  with  the 
docile  and  timid  animals  betokens  a  time  of  peace  and 
universal  benevolence.  Such  poetical  ideas  can  only  be 
appreciated  by  him  who  peruses,  and  meditates  upon, 
the  Bible  with  a  view  to  cultivate  his  sympathy  with 
such  beautiful  expressions. 


152  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


SECTION    FOURTH. 

CIRCUMSTANCES  PECULIAR  TO  THE  WRITINGS. 

A  TWO-FOLD  division  will  be  made  under  this  general 
subject,  (a).  The  internal  circumstances,  pertaining  to 
the  character  or  special  nature  of  the  writing,  (d).  The 
external  circumstances  which  have  contributed  to  the 
determination  of  the  Bible's  contents,  such  as  the  object, 
the  occasion,  the  epoch,  and  the  persons. 

A.  INTERNAL  CIRCUMSTANCES. 

§  80.    INFLUENCE   OF   THE   DIVERSITY   OF   KINDS   OF 
WRITING. 

The  nature  of  a  writing  will  necessarily  exert  an  in- 
fluence upon  its  interpretation.  No  one  would  imagine 
it  allowable  to  comment,  in  the  same  manner,  upon  the 
writings  of  Blackstone,  and  the  poetical  meditations  of 
Wordsworth.  This  principle  is  of  great  importance  in 
reference  to  the  Bible.  There  are  two  ideas  to  be  borne 
in  mind  in  reference  to  this  subject. 

(a).  The  diversity  of  kind  in  the  biblical  writings 
leads  us  naturally  to  suppose  that  there  is  a  correspond- 
ing diversity  of  dispositions  in  the  authors,  or  at  least 
the  employment  of  different  faculties. 

(/;).  Diversity  of  kind  also  produces  a  necessary  diver- 
sity in  the  forms  of  expression  and  in  the  figures  of 
speech.  The  same  ideas  are  expressed  in  different 
words,  and  the  same  words  do  not  exactly  correspond  to 
the  same  ideas  in  different  books.     The  historical,  didac- 


Circumstances  Peculiar  to  the  Writings.    153 

tic,  oratorical,  poetical,  and  sententious  kinds  of  writing 
will  be  successively  studied. 

§  8l.   THE   HISTORICAL  WRITINGS. 

The  Bible  historians  in  most  cases  recount  the  facts 
simply,  clearly,  and  without  pretension.  Hence  the  at- 
tention of  the  interpreter  should  be  centered  upon  the 
facts  related.  Although  simple  as  seems  the  task  of  the 
interpreter  of  the  historical  writings,  yet  certain  diffi- 
culties are  always  encountered.  These  pertain  to  the  ex- 
traordinary nature  of  the  facts  related,  and  to  the  sim- 
ple, brief,  and  often  abridged  character  of  the  narrative. 
Another  difficulty  is  found  in  the  difference  of  individu- 
ality between  the  writer  and  the  interpreter.  The  latter 
should  therefore  endeavor  to  be  identified  with  the  sa- 
cred historian,  and  to  reproduce  the  facts  and  their  de- 
tails, not  simply  as  they  appear  to  him  to  be  most  prob- 
ably correct,  but  as  far  as  possible  as  the  historian  con- 
ceived them  and  desired  them  to  be  transmitted.  This 
rule  has  been  frequently  disregarded  in  regard  to  the 
narratives  of  miracles.  The  rationalism  of  the  last  cent- 
ury went  to  a  great  extreme  of  error  in  following  the 
mania  for  transforming  miracles  into  natural  facts. 
Without  going  to  such  an  extent,  many  orthodox  critics 
have  disregarded  this  rule,  with  an  apologetic  intention, 
in  order  to  get  rid  of,  as  far  as  possible,  the  supernatural 
element  in  the  biblical  narrative.  They  have  made  too 
great  a  concession  to  popular  demand.  The  truth,  first 
of  all,  should  be  the  motto  of  the  interpreter.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  add  to  the 
literal  narrative  when  a  miracle  is  not  clearly  indicated. 
More  than  once  the  evangelist,  struck  by  a  remarkable 
fact,  reported  it,  without  saying  whether  it  was  a  mira- 
cle of  their  Master  or  only  a  providential  occurrence. 
Examples  may  be  found  in  John  viii.  59,  where  Jesus 
7* 


154  Biblical  Hcrmcncutics. 

escapes  from  the  hands  of  those  who  wish  to  stone  Him  ; 
and  in  John  xviii.  6,  where  the  Saviour's  simple  question 
causes  those  who  came  to  arrest  Him  to  fall  back  amazed. 
When  the  narrative  is  abridged,  much  aid  may  be  de- 
rived frequently  from  the  parallel  accounts,  especially  in 
the  Gospels.  This  fourfold  and  symmetrical  history  of 
Christ  is  of  immense  value  to  the  interpreter.  A  com- 
parison of  the  four  Gospels  clears  up  many  obscurities, 
fills  up  many  gaps,  and  adds  supplementary  details  to 
each  independent  account.  The  very  diversity  between 
the  several  histories  of  the  Saviour's  life  adds  value  to 
each  and  gives  completeness  to  the  whole  account. 
Thus,  the  parable  of  the  vine-dressers  is  related  with 
much  more  fullness  and  detail  in  Matthew  than  in 
Luke,  but  in  Luke's  account  are  found  these  two 
words,  firj  yevoiro,  which  throw  much  light  on  the  whole 
scene.  It  is  a  cry  which  escapes  from  the  conscience  of 
the  culpable  magistrates,  showing  that  they  had  well 
comprehended  the  striking  parable  of  the  Saviour.  The 
resentment  thus  excited  can  therefore  be  understood. 

§  82.   CHRONOLOGY. 

The  historical  writings  present  a  peculiar  question, 
which  sometimes  creates  difficulties  for  the  interpreter, 
sometimes  furnishes  advantages  to  him,  but  always  im- 
poses special  duties  upon  him.  We  refer  to  historical 
chronology.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  interpre- 
ter to  know  just  at  what  point  this  chronology  has  been 
observed  and  where  it  has  been  ignored.  If  one  is  de- 
termined to  find  a  regular  chronology  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, he  is  doomed  to  disappointment.  In  order  to 
complete  such  a  chronology,  startling  hypotheses  must 
be  advocated.  This  view  is  fortunately  almost  aban- 
doned.    As  to  the  New  Testament,  the  same  difficulties 


Circumstances  Pcculiai'  to  the  Writings.   155 

exist,  although  perhaps  not  to  the  same  degree.  Even 
the  Gospels  can  not  be  arranged  as  to  all  their  details 
into  a  regular  harmony.  Calvin  has  recognized  this  fact, 
and  has  perhaps  too  rigidly  excluded  the  chronological 
element  from  the  Gospels.  The  present  state  of  chron- 
ological science  is  such  that  the  interpreter  can  derive 
very  little  benefit  from  it.  There  are  a  few  general  di- 
rections which  will  be  of  use,  and  will  be  found  fre- 
quently applicable : 

(a).  The  arrangement  of  the  Gospels  is  generally 
chronological.  Many  obvious  causes,  however,  were  in 
operation  to  disturb  the  regularity  of  this  order. 

{b).  More  than  once  the  evangelists  have  intentionally 
subordinated  the  chronological  order  to  the  interests  of 
divine  instruction.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  the 
Gospel  of  Matthew.  He  has  in  more  than  one  instance 
grouped  together  the  discourses  of  Christ  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  render  them  more  solemn  and  prominent. 

(c).  A  critical  examination  of  the  Gospels  induces  the 
belief  that  the  evangelists  inserted  therein  many  inci- 
dents preserved  in  their  memory.  It  would  be  natural 
for  the  writers  to  insert  an  incident  particularly  pleasing 
to  themselves  side  by  side  with  an  analogous  transaction 
which  they  were  at  the  time  recording.  These  inser- 
tions can  not  always  be  reconciled  with  the  exact  his- 
torical order. 

(d).  In  case  of  any  confusion  in  the  order  of  events 
recorded  by  the  evangelists,  we  are  induced  by  critical 
examination  to  recognize  St.  John  as  the  most  exact  of 
the  four. 

(c).  Indications  of  very  important  times  arc  found  in 
the  Gospels,  around  which  a  number  of  facts  is  grouped, 
and  to  which  special  attention  must  therefore  be  given. 
These  special  occasions  are  often  described  with  great 
chronological  exactness. 


156  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

Thus,  the  first  two  Gospels  indicate  with  great  care  that 
the  transfiguration  of  Jesus  took  place  six  days  after  a  re- 
markable conversation  reported  in  the  three  synoptical 
Gospels — Matthew  xvi.  13,  Mark  viii.  27,  and  Luke  ix. 
18.  Luke,  however,  in  chapter  ix.  verse  28,  without  be- 
ing so  precise,  confirms  this  indicated  fact  in  the  follow- 
ing words:  <1)oeI  fjfiepai  ohtg).  No  doubt,  therefore,  can  be 
entertained  as  to  this  relative  date.  But  if  we  desire  to 
know  the  absolute  date  and  seek  in  the  same  Gospels 
the  time  from  which  they  counted  the  six  days,  we  find 
ourselves  enveloped  in  uncertainties.  Ev  eiceivais  ralg 
ill* 'paig  (Mark  viii.  1)  is  Mark's  starting  point.  We  must 
be  satisfied,  therefore,  with  an  approximate  chronology 
in  these  events. 

§  83.  INFLUENCE   OF   THE   INDIVIDUALITY   OF  THE 
HISTORIANS. 

The  historical  writings  are  to  a  certain  extent  depend- 
ent for  interpretation  upon  the  individuality  of  the  his- 
torians. We  must  become  convinced  of  each  writer's 
modes  of  expression  and  style  of  thought  before  we  can 
successfully  interpret  his  works.  A  knowledge  of  his 
intellectual  and  moral  characteristics  is  required  in  the 
interpretation  of  the  Bible.  In  reference  to  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, this  investigation  will  be  found  peculiarly  bene- 
ficial. It  will  reveal  the  probability  that  prophets  were 
the  authors  of  the  books  of  Kings,  and  that  priests  pen- 
ned the  Chronicles.  It  will  inspire  even  a  greater  confi- 
dence in  the  Mosaic  records,  because  they  are  so  deeply 
impressed  with  simplicity,  humility,  and  disinterested- 
ness. 

The  thoughts  and  sentiments  of  the  biblical  historians 
are  revealed  in  a  thousand  little  details  allowed  to  creep 
into  the  record.      These  indications  of  personality  are 


Circtcmstances  Peculiar  to  the  Writings.   157 

here  more  rare  than  in  the  other  kinds  of  writings,  but 
are  all  the  more  precious.  Their  very  rarity  and  invisi- 
bility inspire  us  with  full  confidence  in  the  sincerity  of 
the  writer. 

A  remarkable  example  of  this  individuality  of  histori- 
ans may  be  observed  in  the  case  of  Mark.  He  presents 
more  than  any  other  those  slight  observations  and  mi- 
nute circumstances  which  vividly  depict  the  scene,  satisfy 
the  mind,  and  persuade  the  heart. 

§  84.   THE   DIDACTIC   WRITINGS. 

Next  to  the  historical  the  didactic  writings  are  those 
in  which  the  idea  ought  to  be  the  most  literally  under- 
stood, since  the  writer  has  instruction  for  his  principal 
object.  In  the  didactic  writings  the  revealed  truths  are 
principally  to  be  found.  In  the  interpretation  of  these 
the  utmost  caution  and  reserve  are  to  be  observed.  It 
is  here,  if  we  may  so  speak,  that  the  word  of  God  is 
most  clearly  revealed.  There  is  neither  the  imagery  of 
poetry  nor  the  emotion  of  oratory  to  bewilder  and  mis- 
lead. The  phrase  is  to  be  read  literally  and  the  thought 
transmitted  conscientiously. 

There  are,  nevertheless,  certain  difficulties  in  the  in- 
terpretation of  didactic  writings.  For  instance,  the  the- 
ologian is  required  to  distinguish  between  the  instruc- 
tion and  the  arguments  by  which  it  is  supported.  Both 
are  divinely  inspired,  but  special  attention  must  be  paid 
to  the  former.  The  arguments  are  only  a  divine  conde- 
scension to  persuade  the  auditors  or  the  readers.  God 
commands,  and  the  wherefore  is  not  necessary.  But  in 
some  cases  He  graciously  argues  the  point  or  gratuit- 
ously gives  the  reasons  for  a  command.  An  example  is 
found  in  Matthew  xxii.,  where  Jesus  maintains,  against 
the  crafty  ignorance  of  the  Sadducees,  the  reality  and 
the  spirituality  of  the  future  life. 


158  Biblical  Hermencuties., 

A  further  difficulty  will  be  found  in  the  absence  of 
logical  method  in  the  sacred  writings.  In  the  Script- 
ures the  instruction  is  scarcely  ever  given  in  a  form 
purely  and  clearly  didactic.  In  the  New  Testament  the 
epistles  presuppose  an  epistolary  language,  and  the  dis- 
courses of  Christ  often  bring  with  them  the  style  of  a 
dialogue.  This  familiar  manner  of  discourse  often 
causes  many  omissions,  sometimes  of  the  premises  and 
sometimes  of  the  thesis.  The  task  of  the  interpreter  is 
to  derive  from  this  commingling  of  methods  an  orderly 
plan  of  argument.  In  order,  therefore,  to  succeed  in  un- 
derstanding the  didactic  portions  of  the  New  Testament, 
the  theologian  has  need  of  real  sagacity,  clearness  of 
mind,  and  justness  of  judgment.  Sagacity  will  enable 
him  to  seize  the  important  and  central  idea,  clear  insight 
will  aid  him  in  distinguishing  this  from  all  secondary 
ideas,  and  judgment  will  dispose  the  whole  in  logical 
order. 

§  85.   ORATORICAL  WRITINGS. 

Didactic  instruction,  by  being  invested  with  popular 
form,  is  easily  made  to  assume  the  oratorical  character. 
Oratorical  writings  unite  the  person  with  the  idea,  emo- 
tion with  instruction,  and  desire  of  persuading  with  the 
exposition  of  truth.  Thus  the  orator  is  induced  to  pre- 
sent prominently  both  himself  and  the  individuals  to 
whom  he  speaks.  He  is  led  to  address  himself  to  their 
individuality,  and  to  derive  aid  from  the  circumstances 
in  which  they  are  found.  Hence  in  oratorical  writings 
are  found  forms  unknown  to  the  preceding  kinds,  objects 
much  more  complex,  more  flowing  styles,  the  employ- 
ment of  more  numerous  figures,  and  more  personal  argu- 
ments. The  task  of  the  interpreter  is  necessarily  modi- 
fied by  these  circumstances.  In  addition  to  the  new  dif- 
ficulties created  by  the  grandeur  of  the  style,  the  colored 


Circumstances  Peculiar  to  the  Writings.    159 

thoughts,  and  the  richness  of  the  figures,  there  is  greater 
difficulty  in  discovering  and  distinguishing  the  main 
idea.  A  large  portion  of  the  biblical  writings  assumes 
this  oratorical  form.  It  is  found  in  the  legislative  deliv- 
erances of  Moses  and  in  the  chants  of  the  prophets. 
Deuteronomy  is  almost  entirely  composed  in  oratorical 
style.  The  latter  part  of  Isaiah  contains  it,  and  it  is 
found  mingled  with  the  poetical  instructions  in  the  book 
of  Job.  The  New  Testament  presents  a  number  of  cases 
of  its  employment.  It  is  often  found  in  the  epistles  and 
even  in  the  dialogues,  sometimes  rising  to  the  height  of 
pathos  when  the  emotions  of  the  orator  so  far  overcome 
him  that  he  addresses  himself  exclusively  to  the  heart 
instead  of  to  the  intelligence.  An  example  of  this  may 
be  found  in  Romans  viii.  33-39.  The  interpreter's  task 
consists  in  extricating  the  precise  thought  from  these 
oratorical  passages. 

§  86.    POETICAL  WRITINGS. 

These  are  somewhat  analogous  to  the  oratorical  writ- 
ings, and  present  about  the  same  difficulties  and  encour- 
agements to  the  interpreter,  except  that  the  imagination 
is  more  active  and  the  form  even  more  modified.  The 
duty  of  the  interpreter  will  therefore  be  to  resolve  the 
beauty  of  the  divine  poetry  into  the  definite  thought 
underlying  the  poetical  form. 

The  poetry  of  the  Bible  has  a  twofold  character : 
(/?).  Sometimes  it  is  used  in  prophetical  writings  with 
the  evident  design  of  enveloping  the  details  of  a  proph- 
ecy in  a  brilliant  but  thick  veil,  which  can  easily  be  re- 
moved when  the  fulfillment  has  arrived.  Examples  of 
this  prophetical  use  of  poetry  may  be  found  in  Isaiah, 
in  Joel,  and  in  the  discourses  of  Christ,  in  reference  to 
His  future  coming. 


160  Biblical  Hermencntics. 

(b).  Sometimes  the  poetry  is  merely  symbolical  and 
didactic,  and  is  thus  designed  to  give  pungency  and  life 
to  the  truth  imparted.  Examples  of  the  didactic  use  of 
poetry  may  be  found  in  the  Psalms  and  in  the  Epistle 
of  James. 

§  87.    B.    EXTERNAL    CIRCUMSTANCES    OF    THE 
WRITINGS. 

The  circumstances  to  which  we  have  special  reference 
under  this  heading  are  the  persons  to  whom  the  writings 
or  the  biblical  discourses  were  addressed :  the  epoch,  the 
occasion,  and  finally  the  object  of  these  writings  and  dis- 
courses. These  four  circumstances  are  so  intimately 
connected  that  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish 
the  influence  of  each.  They  may,  however,  be  consid- 
ered separately,  which  we  will  accordingly  proceed  to 
do,  reserving  the  most  general  and  important  considera- 
tion, that  of  the  object,  until  the  last.  The  true  force 
of  the  influence  exerted  by  these  external  circumstances 
will  be  apparent  only  after  the  entire  discussion. 

(i).    PERSONS    TO    WHOM     THE    WRITINGS     WERE    AD- 
DRESSED.— INFLUENCE   UPON   THE   WRITING. 

An  author,  addressing  himself  to  a  person  of  peculiar 
character,  chooses  his  words  with  reference  to  the  effect 
to  be  produced  upon  him.  Therefore  the  character  and 
circumstances  of  a  reader  or  auditor  become  in  some 
degree  an  essential  element  in  a  correct  interpretation. 
Reference  has  been  made  above  to  the  social  circum- 
stances of  the  writer  and  the  influence  exercised  by  them 
upon  his  production.  The  influence  is  still  more  ex- 
tended, if  the  same  circumstances  are  common  to  his 
readers  and  to  himself,  which  is  often  the  case.  Some- 
times, however,  the  social  circumstances  of  the  readers 


Circumstances  Peculiar  to  the  Writings.    i 6 1 

are  foreign  to  the  writer ;  but  even  then  he  takes  note 
of  this  fact,  and  conforms  himself  to  them,  perhaps  with- 
out having  intended  it. 

Many  of  the  circumstances  are  external  to  the  person 
addressed,  as,  for  example,  geographical,  natural,  and 
political  circumstances ;  prosperity,  wealth,  industry,  re- 
nown, origin  of  churches,  and  number  of  believers. 
These  will  exert  a  special  influence  upon  the  form  of 
the  writings  by  determining  the  tone  of  the  whole,  the 
choice  of  the  arguments  and  images.  Others  relate 
more  particularly  to  the  inner  life,  such  as  the  religious 
circumstances,  deep-rooted  prejudices,  intellectual  and 
moral  characteristics. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  strongly  impressed  by 
the  influences  mentioned  under  the  first  category,  the 
Epistles  to  the  Galatians  and  the  Colossians  by  those  of 
the  second,  the  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  by  both. 

The  study  of  these  two  classes  of  influences  renders 
great  service  to  the  interpreter.  It  enables  him  to  dis- 
tinguish between  the  purely  ad  hominem  arguments  and 
discourses  and  those  which  were  universal  in  their  appli- 
cation. It  thus  gives  him  the  clue  by  which  to  determine 
whether  a  given  promise  and  discourse  pertain  to  a  par- 
ticular epoch  and  class  of  men  or  concern  the  Church 
universal.  Some  simple-minded  Christians  have  been 
disturbed  by  the  command  given  by  the  apostles,  Acts 
xv.»29,  to  abstain  from  blood  and  strangled  animals  as 
well  as  from  impurity  and  idolatry.  Only  the  most 
literal  interpreters  would  advocate  in  our  day  the  exact 
and  complete  observance  of  this  commandment.  The 
opening  address  of  this  epistle  sent  by  the  apostles  is 
sufficient  to  show  that  this  is  not  a  permanent  and  uni- 
versal precept,  but  applicable  only  "  To  the  brethren 
which  are  of  the  Gentiles  in  Antioch,  and  Syria,  and 
Cilicia."     Some  have  thought  that  the  promises  of  in- 


1 62  Biblical  Hcrmcncutics. 

spiration  made  by  Christ  to  the  Apostles  (Matthew  x. 
and  xix.,  Mark  xiii.  II,  Luke  xxi.  14,  John  xiv.  26,  and 
John  xvi.  13)  are  applicable  to  all  true  Christians.  An  ex- 
amination of  these  passages,  however,  shows  that  Jesus 
addressed  them  to  the  apostles  only  on  these  occasions. 
No  one  is  therefore  authorized  to  extend  these  solemn 
and  mysterious  assurances  to  other  men  in  other  circum- 
stances and  other  times.  The  consideration  of  the  per- 
sons addressed  is  therefore  an  important  resource. 

(2).      §  88.    CIRCUMSTANCES   OF   THE   EPOCH. 

Very  little  need  be  said  upon  this  subject,  for  it 
would  be  conceded  by  all  that  the  events  and  circum- 
stances of  the  epoch  in  which  the  writing  was  produced 
have  modified  its  character.  This  investigation  coin- 
cides largely  with  that  of  the  persons  and  the  occasion, 
since  it  gives  the  former  their  peculiarities,  and  to  the 
latter  its  origin.  Nevertheless  the  interpreter  should 
constantly  bear  the  epoch  in  mind,  for  besides  aiding  in 
the  discovery  both  of  the  occasion  and  the  object,  it  has 
often  left  its  individual  impress  upon  the  figures  and 
modes  of  speech  employed. 

The  circumstances  of  the  epoch,  in  which  the  Epistle 
of  Paul  to  the  Hebrews  was  written,  are  the  key  to  its 
explanation.  It  would  be  unintelligible  if  separated 
from  the  thought,  the  religious  and  political  agitations 
of  Palestine,  a  few  years  before  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  from  the  moral  shock  which  resulted  from 
that  destruction  to  the  Judeo-Christian  Churches.  The 
Apocalypse  is  also  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  emo- 
tions and  sufferings  of  the  persecuted  churches  of  Asia. 

(3)-      §  89-   OCCASION   OF   THE   WRITING. 
The  circumstances  of  the  epoch  have  often  furnished 
an  indirect  occasion  for  the  production  of  a  book.     But 


Circumstances  Peculiar  to  the  Writings.    163 

the  interpreter  ought  to  seek  besides  the  direct  and  im- 
mediate  occasion.  This  may  almost  always  be  found, 
and  from  it  great  profit  may  be  derived.  The  study  of 
the  occasion  is  much  more  important  than  that  of  the 
persons,  because  its  influence  is  more  widely  extended. 
Almost  all  the  books  of  the  Bible,  with  the  possible  ex- 
ception of  those  of  Solomon,  Job,  and  a  few  others,  have 
been  produced  in  view  of  certain  circumstances  of  an 
urgent  need,  of  an  immediate  work  to  be  accomplished  ; 
in  short,  of  an  occasion  more  or  less  pressing  and  deci- 
sive. This  fact  does  not,  however,  infringe  upon  the 
full  inspiration  and  universal  applicability  of  the  divine 
Word. 

The  study  of  the  occasion  is  therefore  an  important 
element  in  the  interpretation  of  the  sacred  writings.  In 
order  to  understand  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  its  tone 
of  indignation,  its  precipitation,  the  nature  and  form  of 
the  instruction,  the  writer's  own  apology,  the  carefully 
detailed  proof  of  his  apostolic  credentials,  and  his  inde- 
pendence of  the  other  apostles,  it  is  necessary  to  recall 
that  Paul  had  suddenly  learned  the  defection  of  the 
Galatians,  led  astray  by  the  Judaizing  teachers.  The 
surprising  and  continued  contrasts  in  the  Second  Epistle 
to  the  Corinthians  are  only  to  be  explained  by  remem- 
bering that  the  apostle  found  himself  called  upon  to 
write  to  them  at  once,  in  order  to  praise  them  for  having 
obeyed  the  preceding  epistle,  to  censure  them  for  much 
more  grievous  schisms  than  he  had  at  first  believed,  to 
defend  himself  against  indignant  accusations,  to  recom- 
mend a  collection  to  which  they  were  but  little  disposed, 
and  that,  in  the  midst  of  this  conflict  of  sentiments,  he 
wished  to  guard  against  wounding  the  proud  feelings  of 
his  readers. 

In  Luke  ix.  50  and  xi.  23  Jesus  pronounces  two  ap- 
parently contradictory  maxims:  "  He  that  is  not  against 


164  Biblical  Hermcneutics. 

us  is  for  us,"  and  "  He  that  is  not  with  me  is  against 
me."  The  difference  of  occasions  explains  and  concili- 
ates them.  In  one  case  He  was  engaged  with  the  ap- 
parent indifference  of  a  man  who,  nevertheless,  rendered 
homage  to  Jesus  by  attempting  to  cast  out  devils  in  His 
name.  In  the  other  case  the  Saviour  defends  Himself 
against  the  poorly  disguised  hostility  of  those  who  at- 
tributed His  miracles  to  the  power  of  Beelzebub. 


(4).      §  90.    OBJECT   OF  THE   WRITING. 

The  object  of  the  writing  is  the  effect  that  the  writer 
wishes  to  produce.  The  entire  Bible  may  be  regarded 
as  a  unit,  produced  by  the  mind  of  God,  and  designed 
to  effect  the  regeneration  of  humankind.  Regenera- 
tion, therefore,  is  the  object  of  the  Bible,  using  the  word 
regeneration  as  including  the  whole  process  of  redemp- 
tion. Anything  contrary  to  this  sacred  object  must  not 
be  expected  or  admitted  into  the  Bible.  But  the  Bible 
itself  is  divided  into  separate  books,  and  each  of  these 
books  has  its  distinct  object.  Moreover,  each  portion, 
each  phrase  even  of  a  given  book  has  an  object  more 
special  still,  although  concurring  in  the  general  object  of 
the  whole. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  for  example,  has  for  its 
object  the  stimulating  of  the  shaken  faith  of  the  Jewish 
Christians.  This  general  object  is  methodically  attained 
by  a  series  of  successive  deductions  having  each  its  own 
special  object.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  chapters, 
the  eleventh,  the  object  of  which  is  to  magnify  the 
power  of  faith,  attains  this  object  by  a  series  of  striking 
examples,  ending  with  a  conclusion  (verses  39  and  40) 
which  has  a  still  more  special  object.  This  regular  sub- 
ordination of  local  objects  to  the  general  effect  to  be 


Circumstances  Peculiar  to  the  Writings.    165 

produced  characterizes  this  Epistle  as  one  of  strict  unity 
of  thought. 

Some  of  the  biblical  books,  however,  have  several  ob- 
jects ;  one  of  these  is  the  principal  object,  and  the  oth- 
ers are  secondary.  This  is  the  case  in  St.  John's  Gos- 
pel, the  main  object  of  which  is  to  complete  and  supple- 
ment the  synoptical  Gospels  with  a  secondary  design  of 
combatting  the  prevailing  heresies.  Sometimes  one  of 
the  objects  is  final  and  the  others  instrumental.  Deuter- 
onomy— the  pathetic  farewell  of  Moses  to  his  people — 
was  designed  to  reveal  and  maintain  his  fidelity,  and  it 
was  in  view  of  this  final  object  that  the  patriarch  repeats 
and  modifies  his  legislation.  Sometimes  the  objects 
are  successive,  corresponding  to  the  different  por- 
tions of  the  book.  The  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthi- 
ans has  for  the  object  of  its  first  six  chapters  the  censure 
of  certain  disorderly  practices,  and,  for  the  object  of  the 
following  ten  chapters,  the  answer  of  some  questions  put 
by  the  Church  of  Corinth  to  Paul.  But  almost  always  in 
such  a  case  there  is  a  latent  general  object  which  gives 
unity  to  the  book.  In  the  case  before  us,  Paul  has  in 
view  the  spiritual  disorders  of  the  Church  at  Corinth 
and  seeks  to  remedy  them. 

§  91.   IMPORTANCE  OF  THE   EXAMINATION   OF  THE 
OBJECT. 

In  order  to  exhibit  this  importance,  it  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  compare  this  investigation  with  that  of  the  per- 
sons, the  epoch,  and  the  occasion.  The  investigation  of 
the  persons  and  epoch  arc  only  applicable  to  certain 
books;  that  of  the  occasion  can  apply  only  to  certain  de- 
tails of  the  book.  An  understanding  of  the  object,  on 
the  contrary,  will  be  useful  in  studying  each  detail  and 
ill  the  books. 


1 66  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

The  mind  of  the  writer  is  constantly  fixed  upon  the 
object  he  has  in  view,  and,  therefore,  the  attention  of 
the  interpreter  should  be  directed  to  the  same.  This 
object  once  discovered  will  complete  the  abridged 
phrases,  throw  light  upon  obscurities,  and  detect  the 
true  meaning  when  several  interpretations  are  possible. 
The  object  will  aid  in  distinguishing  the  literal  from  the 
figurative,  the  relative  from  the  absolute,  and  the  main 
from  the  secondary  thoughts.  If  we  could  know  the 
special  object  of  Mark's  Gospel,  we  would  probably  find 
therein  the  explanation  of  the  singular  omission  of  the 
Saviour's  discourses.  The  silence  of  St.  John  also  in 
reference  to  the  ministry  of  Christ  in  Galilee  is  best  ex- 
plained by  the  object  which  he  appears  to  have  had  of 
supplementing  the  former  Gospels. 

§  92.   ABUSE   OF  THE  CONSIDERATION   OF   THE   OBJECT. 

This  means  of  interpretation  as  well  as  the  context  is 
liable  to  great  abuse,  because  of  its  great  importance  in 
interpretation.  The  stronger  the  lever,  the  more  is  one 
tempted  to  employ  it  to  destroy  as  well  as  to  build  up. 
Some  have  abused  the  general  object  by  forgetting  the 
special  object ;  supposing  that  the  entire  book  from  the 
first  to  the  last  word  should  revolve  around  a  single  idea. 
This  rigorous  unity  is  seldom  found  in  the  biblical  writ- 
ings. Whatever  may  be  the  importance  of  the  general 
object  of  the  book,  the  special  object  of  each  section 
takes  precedence  in  Hermeneutics.  Some,  on  the  other 
hand,  have  abused  the  special  object  by  making  it  all-im- 
portant. Consequently,  they  have  desired  to  erase  from 
the  predictions  of  the  prophets  and  from  the  instructions 
of  Christ  all  that  could  not  have  presented  a  clear  idea 
to  the  auditors  who  listened  to  tliem.     But  predictions 


Circumstances  Pcctiliar  to  the  Writings.    167 

attain  their  perfect  clearness  only  in  the  future  ;  and  it 
is  of  the  future  that  Jesus  in  many  cases  evidently 
spoke.  In  all  these  cases  the  words  of  Jesus  had  a  ref- 
erence to  future  ages,  and  became  much  clearer  after 
His  resurrection  and  the  sending  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
Christ,  therefore,  frequently  spoke  with  reference  to  the 
following  era  of  spiritual  illumination,  in  which  the  dis- 
ciples would  be  able  to  comprehend  what  was  then  to 
them  obscure. 


§  93.   MEANS   OF  DETERMINING   THE   OBJECT. 

The  investigation  of  the  object  is  a  critical  work,  in 
which  sagacity  and  good  sense  are  of  more  avail  than 
any  logical  process.  A  few  practical  rules  are  there- 
fore all  that. can  be  given  : 

1.  It  is  proper  to  take  account  of  the  traditions  of 
ecclesiastical  history  upon  the  object  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment writers.  These  traditions  doubtless  have  very  lit- 
tle authenticity,  and  should  be  received  with  reserve, 
but  should  not  be  entirely  ignored. 

2.  Sometimes  the  author  himself  indicates  his  object, 
cither  at  the  beginning,  as  Luke  in  his  prologue,  or  at 
the  end,  as  John  in  the  conclusion  of  his  Gospel  (John 
xx.  31),  or  in  the  course  of  the  book,  as  Moses  in  Deu- 
teronomy. 

3.  The  study  of  the  persons,  the  epoch,  and  the  occa- 
sion will  be  found  very  useful  in  the  determination  of 
the  object.  There  are  three  elements  or  factors  which 
go  to  make  up  the  object.  The  sacred  writers  must 
have  been  influenced,  partially  at  least,  in  their  choice 
of  an  object,  by  the  sentiments  and  character  of  the  per- 
sons to  whom  they  wrote,  and  by  the  position  and  cir- 
cumstances  in  which  they  were   found.     These  points, 


1 68  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

or  any  two  of  them  at  least,  having  been  once  discovered, 
the  object  is  also  determined. 

4.  These  suggestions  are  useful  in  solving  the  ques- 
tion of  the  external  objects.  There  is  sometimes  also 
an  internal  object,  which  can  only  be  revealed  by  the 
attentive  reading  of  the  book.  The  careful  and  com- 
parative reading  of  the  Bible,  the  meditation  upon  the 
successive  details,  are  therefore  the  fourth  and  most  im- 
portant rule. 

In  the  books  which  have  a  marked  degree  of  order 
and  profundity,  the  object  is  discoverable  by  the  method 
and  organic  character  of  the  whole.  Examples  may  be 
found  in  Job,  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  and  in  that  to 
the  Hebrews.  But  in  the  more  popular  and  poetical 
books  the  object  is  more  special  and  more  variable. 
In  such  a  case  the  details  must  betray  the  real  object — 
sometimes  by  their  analogy  and  sometimes  by  their  con- 
trasts. The  object  of  the  book  of  Ruth  is  found  in  the 
final  genealogy  (iv.  17-22);  that  of  the  apologue  of  Jo- 
nah appears  in  the  divine  i-ni\.ivhiov  which  terminates  it 
(iv.  10,  1 1).  The  book  of  James  is  immethodical,  but 
the  attentive  reader  can  discover  the  object  by  noticing 
that  the  sacred  writer  mentions  again  and  again,  under 
various  forms  and  with  different  applications,  the  self- 
same opposition,  viz,  that  between  the  profound  relig- 
ious feeling  which  is  the  sovereign  of  the  heart  and  life, 
and  the  superficial  religion  of  intellectual  belief  and  of 
nominal  Christians. 

The  comparison  of  one  book  with  other  analogous 
sacred  books  is  often  of  great  benefit  in  determining  the 
object.  This  is  an  essential  element  in  the  analytical 
study  of  the  Bible. 

We  have  before  shown  how  the  comparison  of  John's 
gospel  with  the  synoptical  gospels  reveals  the  supple- 


Circumstances  Peculiar  to  the  Writings.    169 

mentary  object  of  the  former.  The  comparison  of 
Leviticus  and  Deuteronomy  renders  manifest  the  eccle- 
siastical object  of  the  one  and  the  parenetical  and  popular 
object  of  the  other.  The  comparison  of  the  books  of 
Kings  and  of  those  of  Chronicles  demonstrates  better 
than  anything  else  the  sacerdotal  object  of  the  latter 
and  the  prophetical  object  of  the  former. 

8 


PART    FOURTH. 

SCRIPTURAL  HERMENEUTICS.* 

§94.    GENERALLY     CONSIDERED. 

SCRIPTURAL  Hermeneutics  is  the  complement  of  His- 
torical Hermeneutics.  The  latter  investigates  either  in 
an  a  priori  manner,  or  in  the  books  themselves,  what 
are  the  external  circumstances,  which  have  exerted  an 
influence  upon  the  language  of  the  sacred  authors.  The 
former  studies  in  an  a  posteriori  manner,  the  entire  Bible, 
in  order  to  deduce  principles  by  the  aid  of  which  to  dis- 
cover the  thought  of  the  Spirit. 

The  resources  that  Scriptural  Hermeneutics  furnishes 
to  the  interpreter  may  be  embraced  under  five  different 
heads : 

1.  The  context,  which  has  for  its  nature  the  logical 
and  psychological  nature  of  the  instruction. 

2.  The  Analogy  of  Faith,  which  has  for  its  principle 
the  general  unity  of  biblical  instruction. 

3.  The  Parallels  of  Ideas,  which  have  for  their  principle 
the  constant  identity  of  instruction. 

4.  The  Special  Study  of  each  sacred  book,  which  has 
for  its  principle  the  individuality  of  each  author. 

5.  The  Moral  and  Intellectual  Character  of  the  Bible, 


•  Prof.  Cellerier  denominates  this  part  of  his  treatise  "  Ilermeneu- 
tique  Scriptuaire,"  i.  e.,  Scriptuary  Hermeneutics,  or  Hermeneutics 
more  peculiarly  Biblical.  The  term  Scriptural  does  not  correspond 
exactly  to  the  French  word  Scriptuaire;  but  we  have  adopted  it,  be- 
cause  'Scriptuary  '  is  not  used  in  English. 
(i7o) 


Scriptural  Ilcrmcncutics.  171 

which  has  for  its  principle  the  sanctity  and    wisdom  of 
the  instruction. 

We  will  examine  separately  the  value  and  limits  of 
each  principle,  and  of  the  method  which  is  connected 
therewith  ;  contenting  ourselves,  however,  with  what 
has  already  been  said  of  the  context  in  Historical  Her- 
meneutics. 


172  Biblical  Hermeueiitics. 


SECTION  FIRST. 

ANALOGY   OF   FAITH. 

§  95.   ITS    NATURE  AND   PRINCIPLE. 

The  method  of  interpretation  called  Analogy  of  Faith, 
appeals  to  the  general  character  of  scriptural  truth  for 
the  explanation  of  a  special  passage.  This  method 
rests  upon  the  principle  of  the  inspired  unity  of  the 
revelation  deposited  in  the  sacred  books.  This  unity  is 
at  once  the  result  and  a  strong  proof  of  the  inspiration 
of  the  Bible.  The  Analogy  of  Faith  is  therefore  an  in- 
spired means  of  interpretation. 

Some  have  objected  to  this  method  of  interpretation, 
supposing  it  to  involve  an  argnmentum  in  circulo.  They 
have  understood  it  as  explaining  each  passage  by  the 
general  tone  of  the  Bible,  and  determining  this  general 
tone  by  the  explained  passages  themselves.  It  is  true 
that  many  interpreters,  using  this  method  without  logic 
and  judgment,  have  merited  this  reproach  and  have 
brought  the  Analogy  of  Faith  into  discredit  by  their  ex- 
aggerations and  abuse.  But  the  fault  is  in  them,  not  in 
the  method.  The  Bible  contains  a  vast  number  of  clear 
and  precise  passages  which  have  no  need  of  the  Analogy 
of  Faith  in  order  to  be  explained. 

These  are  the  declarations  which,  by  their  clearness, 
their  number,  their  importance,  and  their  accord  have 
constituted  the  Analogy  of  Faith.  But  outside  of  these 
there  are  many  passages,  more  or  less  obscure  and.doubt- 
ful,  which  ought  to  be,  and  can  be  within  certain  limits, 
and  with  certain  precautions,  explained  by  the  Analogy 


Afialogy  of  Faith.  173 

of  Faith  thus  constituted.  Such  is  the  true  method 
which  we  are  prepared  to  defend.  With  this  in  view 
we  shall  investigate  the  conditions  of  the  legitimacy  of 
the  Analogy  of  Faith,  then  its  special  utility,  concluding 
with  some  consequences. 

A.    CONDITIONS. 

It  is  very  important  to  investigate  the  conditions  of 
the  Analogy  of  Faith,  since  this  method  is  open  to  much 
vagueness  and  abuse.  The  interpretation  founded  upon 
the  Analogy  of  Faith  is  simply  a  probability,  which,  how- 
ever, may  be  advanced  almost  to  a  certainty.  In  this 
probability  there  are  different  degrees,  which  we  will  en- 
deavor to  enable  the  interpreter  to  distinguish.  This 
whole  investigation  must  be  subject  to  the  rules  of  prob- 
ability, and  must  be  developed  in  the  same  successive 
manner. 

There  are  two  principles,  by  which  the  different  de- 
grees of  the  Analogy  of  Faith  may  be  graduated  :  (a). 
The  character,  more  or  less  biblical  and  immediate,  of 
the  Analogy  of  Faith :  and  (b).  The  more  or  less  evident 
character  of  the  Analogy  of  Faith,  when  found  to  be  suf- 
ficiently biblical  and  immediate. 

1.  GRADATION  PERTAINING  TO  THE  BIBLICAL  AND 
IMMEDIATE  CHARACTER  OF  THE  ANALOGY  OF 
FAITH. 

§  96.    SUPERIOR   DEGREES. 

In  the  Analogy  of  Faith  there  are,  according  as  it  is 
deduced  more  or  less  immediately  from  the  sacred 
books,  many  different  degrees  as  to  force  and  value.  It 
is  possible  to  distinguish  four  of  these  degrees,  two  of 
which  are  superior  and  worthy  of  confidence,  and  two  of 
which  are  inferior,  having  really  no  proper  right  to  the 


174  Biblical  Hcrmcnculics. 


name  of  Analogy  of  Faith.  In  this  treatise  the  former 
will  be  called  Positive  Analogy  and  General  Analogy,  and 
the  latter,  Deduced  Analogy  and  Imposed  Analogy. 

(a).  Positive  Analogy. — Thus  we  designate  the  analogy 
which  is  positively  and  immediately  founded  upon  script- 
ural teachings.  This  superior  degree  is  attainable  only  by 
the  collection  of  a  large  number  of  positive  and  unani- 
mous passages.  When  such  a  collection  is  possible,  the  in- 
terpreter may  be  certain,  not  only  that  such  a  truth  is 
taught  in  the  Bible,  but  that  the  biblical  writers  have 
placed  importance  upon  teaching  it,  and  presented  it 
as  a  truth  of  superior  order.  It  is  upon  such  an  Analogy 
of  Faith  that  the  first  truths  of  Revelation  rest,  as  the  ex- 
istence of  God,  Providence,  future  life  and  retribution, 
sin,  pardon,  and  the  gift  of  the  Saviour.  This  degree 
of  analogy  is  simply  the  positive  and  general  teaching 
of  Scripture.     Thus  it  is  placed  above  all  controversy. 

(b).  General  Analogy. — This  may  be  designated  the 
analogy  which  is  deduced,  not  as  the  preceding  degree, 
from  the  very  letter  of  many  unanimous  passages,  but 
from  their  object,  their  tendency,  and  the  religious  im- 
pression that  they  leave  upon  mankind. 

The  object  and  tendency  of  the  sacred  writings  are 
very  important  and  may  be  easily  determined.  Impor- 
tant, because  in  them  is  revealed  the  will  of  God ;  easy 
to  be  determined,  because  scriptural  truth  is  made  so 
plain  in  its  general  aspects  that  "  the  wayfaring  man 
though  a  fool,  need  not  err  therein." 

The  New  Testament  produces  upon  all  attentive  read- 
ers the  same  general  impression,  and  the  mind  instinct- 
ively declares  against  anything  which  is  out  of  harmony 
with  this  general  tendency.  No  one  can  fail  to  be  struck 
by  the  perseverance  of  our  Saviour  in  combating  and 
extirpating  formalism  ;  in  purifying  the  worship  of  His 
disciples,  the    Sabbath,    charity    and   prayer    from    this 


Analogy  of  Faith.  175 

vicious  principle.  From  this  it  is  evident  that  the  merely 
formal  fast  and  routine  religion,  which  were  before  dis- 
countenanced by  Isaiah,  had  in  the  eyes  of  Jesus  no 
importance. 

General  Analogy,  when  it  is  supported  upon  the  posi- 
tive and  constant  tendencies  of  Scripture,  has,  therefore, 
a  real  value  as  a  hermeneutical  instrument.  It  can 
legitimately  be  called  Analogy  of  Faith.  Nevertheless, 
it  will  be  understood  that  the  evidence  which  is  thus 
derived  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  first  degree.  There  is 
a  chance  of  error  in  appreciating  biblical  tendencies. 
An  element  of  reasoning  must  enter  into  the  discovery 
of  this  general  analogy,  and  therefore  error  may  creep  in. 

§  97.   INFERIOR   DEGREES. 

The  deduced  and  imposed  analogies  which  form  the 
inferior  degrees  are,  in  our  opinion,  unworthy  the  name 
of  Analogy  of  Faith.  They  are  not  without  a  certain 
value,  but  this  value  is  of  another,  and  much  less  influ- 
ential, nature.  They  are  mentioned  here,  because  they 
have  so  generally  usurped  the  name  of  Analogy  of  Faith, 
and  placed  this  name  in  bad  repute.  It  is  important, 
after  having  investigated  and  circumscribed  the  true 
method,  to  distinguish  it  clearly  from  that  which  has 
rendered  it  suspected,  and  to  show  whence  have  arisen 
the  abuses  and  errors  with  which  it  has  often  been 
charged. 

(c).  Deduced  Analogy. — This  method,  having  deduced, 
by  a  train  of  reasoning,  the  logical  consequences  of  the 
universal  and  positive  teaching  of  Scripture,  demands 
for  these  consequences  the  same  degree  of  authority  as 
for  the  biblical  instruction  itself.  It  is  evident  that  this 
method  is  without  foundation,  for  it  takes  for  granted 
the  infallibility  of  the  reasonings  which  connect  the  con- 


176  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

sequences  with  their  sources.  These  reasonings  may  be 
just  or  false,  but  are  always  human,  and,  as  such,  doubt- 
ful or  at  least  debatable.  They  are  theological  systems, 
but  by  no  means  the  Analogy  of  Faith. 

The  longer  and  more  complicated  the  chain  of  reason- 
ing which  separates  the  deduced  consequences  from  the 
scriptural  teaching,  the  greater,  of  course,  will  be  the 
danger  of  error;  and  the  more  likely  will  those  deduced 
consequences  be  called  in  question  as  having  no  founda- 
tion. 

An  example  of  this  false  reasoning  may  be  found  in 
the  method  adopted  by  the  Roman  Church  to  prove  its 
infallibility.  The  several  steps  in  the  argument  are  as 
follows : 

God  has  given  a  Revelation  for  the  purpose  of  saving 
mankind.     (Analogy  of  Faith,  first  degree). 

Therefore  He  watches  over  the  preservation  of  this 
Revelation  and  the  Church.  (This  consequence  has  some 
value,  because  it  is  not  the  result  simply  of  reasoning, 
but  rests,  also,  upon  the  second  degree  of  analogy). 

Therefore  Christ  preserves  the  Church  from  error. 
(Here  we  are  in  the  third  degree,  having  a  conclusion 
entirely  human  and  partially  erroneous). 

Therefore  Christ  has  instituted  a  visible  and  infallible 
authority  in  order  to  prevent  error. 

Therefore  the  Pope  and  the  Bishops  are  the  deposi- 
taries of  this  authority. 

It  is  evident  that  the  more  this  style  of  reasoning  is 
prolonged,  the  less  it  presents  of  the  guarantees  of  truth. 
At  the  point  to  which  we  have  brought  it,  it  includes 
nothing  which  deserves  to  be  called  Analogy  of  Faith. 

(d).  Imposed  Analogy. — This  last  degree  has  received 
the  name  of  Analogy  of  Faith  simply  by  sufferance. 
This  method  is  founded,  not  upon  the  truth  of  the 
Bible,  but  upon  the  faith  of  the  Church.    It  pretends  to 


Analogy  of  Faith.  177 

legitimize  an  interpretation  by  the  official  character  of 
the  doctrine  which  would  result  therefrom.  Thus  under- 
stood, Analogy  of  Faith  signifies  the  Analogy  of  the 
Confessions  of  Faith,  and  has  simply  the  value  that 
these  confessions  themselves  may  have.  This  method 
has  simply  the  value  of  a  probability.  It  is  probable 
that  the  antiquity,  continuity,  and  universality  of  an  in- 
terpretation are  sufficient  guarantees  of  its  justness. 
This  method  has,  thus,  a  certain  value,  but  does  not 
deserve  to  be  ranked  with  the  superior  degrees  of  the 
Analogy  of  Faith. 

2.  GRADATION   PERTAINING  TO  THE  EVIDENCE  OF 
THE  ANALOGY  OF  FAITH. 

§  98.   NUMBER,  UNANIMITY,  CLEARNESS,  DISTRIBUTION. 

The  Analogy  of  Faith,  although  immediate  and  script- 
ural, will  not  always  have  the  same  degree  of  evidence 
and  the  same  authority.  This  evidence  and  this  author- 
ity vary  according  to  the  number,  unanimity,  clearness, 
and  distribution  of  the  passages  upon  which  they  are 
founded. 

(a).  Number.  —  This  consideration  is  fundamental, 
since  the  true  Analogy  of  Faith  rests  upon  the  habitual 
teaching  of  Scripture.  There  is  no  doubt  that  a  divine 
certainty  is  attached  to  every  positive  and  precise 
declaration  of  Scripture  ;  but  something  more  is  neces- 
sary to  form  the  Analogy  of  Faith.  A  frequent  and 
even  constant  repetition  is  necessary.  One  obscure  pas- 
sage might  overbalance  one  clear  passage,  but  could 
never  gainsay  the  evidence  derived  from  a  dozen  clear 
statements.  It  is  evident  that  the  Analogy  of  Faith  is 
stronger  for  the  existence  of  God  than  for  the  person- 
ality of  the  Holy  Spirit.  This  is,  however,  no  sufficient 
reason  for  doubting  the  latter  truth,  but  the  analogy 
which  supports  it  is  wanting  in  the  point  of  number. 


178  Biblical  Hermencutics. 

{V).  Unanimity. — The  same  considerations  apply  to 
the  unanimous  accord  of  the  passages  which  speak  of  a 
certain  subject.  It  is  evident  that  the  value  of  an  Anal- 
ogy of  Faith  depends  largely  upon  the  constancy  with 
which  the  same  doctrine  is  presented  under  the  same 
phase  by  a  number  of  passages.  From  this  point  of 
view  the  universality  of  sin  rests  upon  an  analogy  much 
stronger  than  that  of  the  inability  of  man. 

(c).  Clearness. — Little  need  be  said  upon  this  point, 
for  the  preceding  discussion  has  rendered  unnecessary 
any  formal  urging  of  this  idea.  It  must  be  evident  to 
every  one  that  the  Analogy  of  Faith  will  have  a  value 
proportionate  to  the  clearness  of  the  passages  upon 
which  it  is  founded. 

(d).  Distribution. — This  consideration  involves  some 
questions  which  are  more  delicate  and  less  universally 
admitted.  It  is  connected  with  the  difference  of  indi- 
viduality among  the  sacred  authors,  and  with  the  dis- 
tinction to  be  made  between  their  missions.  The  im- 
portance of  the  Analogy  of  Faith  will  be  according  as  a 
truth  is  clearly  deduced  from  almost  all  the  sacred 
books,  or  only  from  certain  ones,  or  even  from  one  only ; 
from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  or  only  from  one ; 
from  authors  removed  from  each  other  by  centuries,  by 
position  or  by  the  kind  of  writing,  or  only  from  authors 
of  the  same  times  and  of  the  same  character.  What- 
ever may  be  the  inspired  authority  of  the  Epistles  of 
Paul,  an  Analogy  of  Faith  resting  on  these  Epistles 
alone  would  have  less  force  than  one  supported  also  by 
the  Catholic  Epistles  and  the  Gospels.  The  wider  the 
distribution  of  passages  the  stronger  will  be  the  Analogy 
of  Faith. 


Analogy  of  Faith.  179 

B.  REAL  UTILITY  OF  THE  ANALOGY  OF  FAITH. 
§  99.   GENERAL   UTILITY. 

That  the  Analogy  of  Faith  has  been  perverted  and 
misapplied,  does  not  detract  from  the  real  force  of  this 
method  when  properly  employed.  In  the  superior  de- 
grees it  renders  two  general  services,  which  could  not  be 
expected  from  any  other  resource. 

1.  It  proves  the  true  interpretation  of  a  passage,  in  a 
manner  peculiarly  satisfactory  to  the  mind,  by  using  the 
whole  Bible  as  a  commentary.  It  thus  binds  the  details 
to  the  general  teaching,  and  sheds  light  upon  the  latter 
as  well  as  the  former.  Therefore,  as  far  as  the  superior 
degrees  are  concerned,  there  is  very  little  danger  of  mis- 
take. The  interpretation  thus  sustained  presents  a 
character  of  universality,  constancy,  and  certainty,  that 
is  particularly  precious  to  all  those  who  seek  the  truth 
in  the  Bible. 

2.  Analogy  of  Faith,  moreover,  enables  the  student  to 
arrange  the  teachings  of  Scripture  as  to  their  relative 
importance.  While  all  the  deliverances  of  the  Bible  are 
equally  inspired,  there  seems  to  be  a  difference  in  the 
mind  of  the  Spirit  as  to  their  relative  value  to  the  wants 
of  man.  Some  doctrines  are  repeated  again  and  again  ; 
some  truths  are  clearly  and  frequently  affirmed,  while 
others  are  simply  referred  to  in  passing.  The  Analogy 
of  Faith  enables  one  to  distinguish  the  proper  place  of 
each  idea  in  the  counsels  of  God  and  His  designs  in  ref- 
erence to  man. 

§  IOO.    SPECIAL   UTILITY. 

The  result  of  this  light  thrown  upon  the  general 
teaching  of  Scripture  by  the  Analogy  of  Faith,  is  the 
reflection  of  a  certain  portion  of  it  upon  the  detailed 
truths  and  isolated  passages. 


180  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

There  are,  among  others,  two  particular  advantages 
gained  by  the  Analogy  of  Faith. 

(a).  The  mistakes  which  spring  from  biblical  anthro- 
pomorphisms and  expressions  which  are  foreign  to  our 
present  customs,  are  thus  removed.  The  human  mind 
has  a  particular  tendency  to  attach  itself  to  the  unim- 
portant details,  many  of  which  are  found  in  the  anthro- 
pomorphic and  popular  language  of  the  Bible.  The 
Analogy  of  Faith  prevents  us  from  attributing  to  God 
the  organs  and  propensities  of  man.  The  Bible  states 
here  and  there  that  God  repents ;  that  He  is  angry ;  that 
He  has  eyes,  ears,  and  hands ;  but  the  Analogy  of  Faith 
is  present  to  prevent  any  mistake,  for  it  proclaims  God's 
spiritual  and  infinite  nature.  It  also  enables  us  to  forget 
the  physical  elements  in  the  parables,  for  example,  by 
bringing  into  prominence  the  spiritual  significance  of  the 
same. 

(b).  The  Analogy  of  Faith,  moreover,  enables  us  to 
subordinate  certain  historical  facts,  certain  mysterious 
dispensations  of  providence,  to  the  incontestable  purity 
of  the  Divine  attributes ;  and  thus  enables  us  to  bring 
the  general  course  of  history  into  complete  harmony 
with  the  beneficent  nature  of  God. 

A  final  caution  must  be  indicated  against  the  employ- 
ment of  the  inferior  degrees  for  the  superior,  in  the  her- 
meneutical  use  of  the  Analogy  of  Faith.  The  Jews 
condemned  Jesus  to  death  in  the  name  of  a  pharisaical 
Analogy  of  Faith,  based,  not  upon  Scripture,  but  upon 
the  deductions  that  the  Pharisees  made  from  it.  Their 
example  has  been  often  and  sadly  imitated  by  Christians. 

C.  CONSEQUENCES. 
§  IOI.   HERMENEUTICAL  CONSEQUENCES. 
A  few  principles,  worthy  of  attention,  may  be   men- 
tioned as  dcducible  from  the  preceding  discussion. 


Aitalogy  of  Faith.  181 

A  doctrine  clearly  supported  by  the  Analogy  of  Faith, 
can  not  be  contradicted  by  a  contrary  and  obscure  pas- 
sage. The  seeming  disagreement  between  the  two  can 
be  reconciled  only  by  careful  study,  if  at  all ;  but  the 
preference  must  always  be  given  to  the  truth  supported 
by  the  Analogy  of  Faith.  An  example  may  be  found 
in  the  supposed  impeccability  of  believers,  founded  as 
some  think,  upon  I  John  iii.  6 :  "  Whosoever  abid- 
eth  in  him  sinneth  not."  The  literal  sense  here  is  con- 
tradicted by  the  Analogy  of  Faith,  as  also  by  a  passage 
in  the  same  epistle  (i  John  i.  8-10,  and  ii.  1). 

2.  An  isolated  passage  if  it  is  neither  supported  nor 
contradicted  by  the  Analogy  of  Faith  can,  according  to 
the  circumstances  of  clearness,  precision,  and  the  con- 
text, be  understood  as  positively  teaching  a  doctrine,  al- 
though that  doctrine  can  not  have  the  force  of  one 
founded  upon  analogy. 

3.  When  a  doctrine  is  supported  only  by  an  isolated 
passage,  and  meets  with  no  countenance  from  the  Anal- 
ogy of  Faith,  it  ought  to  be  suspected,  and  very  prob- 
ably the  passage  should  be  otherwise  interpreted.  Thus 
the  Roman  Church  has  no  right  to  found  upon  James  v. 
14-16,  two  new  sacraments,  absolutely  foreign  to  the  rest 
of  the  New  Testament.  It  is  evident  that  if  the  writer 
were  speaking  of  two  real  sacraments  instituted  by 
Christ,  they  would  be  mentioned  elsewhere  in  the  sacred 
volume. 

§  102.   DOCTRINAL  CONSEQUENCES. 

The  Analogy  of  Faith  sometimes  supports  doctrines 
which  are  seemingly  contradictory.  These  doctrines  are 
often  equally  important  by  reason  of  their  consequences 
and  the  abundance  and  clearness  of  the  passages  upon 
which  they  rest.  What  shall  an  interpreter  do  in  such  a 
case  ?     He  generally  accepts  one  of  the  doctrines  and  con- 


1 82  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

tests  the  other  by  appealing  to  his  logic  and  availing  him- 
self of  fanciful  exegesis.  From  the  principles  that  have 
been  laid  down,  the  two  following  conclusions  may  be  de- 
duced :  (a).  The  interpreter  should  recognize  the  exist- 
ence of  two  opposite  doctrines  supported  by  exegesis 
and  the  Analogy  of  Faith,  (b).  It  is  proper  to  admit  that 
there  is  between  them,  not  a  contradiction,  but  an 
enantiophany,  and  to  seek  the  solution  in  exegesis,  in 
the  general  spirit  of  scriptural  teaching,  and  in  the 
study  of  the  human  heart.  This  solution  may  almost 
always  be  found  with  time,  labor,  and  good  faith.  But 
if  it  is  not  found  it  is  our  duty  to  wait,  meditate,  and 
labor  still.  If  it  is  never  found  we  are  not  permitted  to 
deny  the  evidence  in  the  name  of  logic,  or  to  falsify  ex- 
egesis in  order  to  satisfy  our  desire  of  unity.  The  con- 
necting links  between  the  two  doctrines  may  be  con- 
cealed from  our  view,  but  if  they  are  independently  re- 
vealed in  God's  Holy  Word,  that  should  be  sufficient. 


Parallels  of  Ideas.  183 


SECTION  SECOND. 
PARALLELS    OF    IDEAS. 

THIS  subject  has  been  treated  of  heretofore,  but  a  few 
additional  remarks  are  necessary,  since  this  principle  and 
its  limits  should  be  clearly  understood  before  proceeding 
farther. 

There  is  noticeable  in  the  Bible  a  progress  of  Revela- 
tion from  the  rudimental  books  of  Moses,  to  the  fully 
developed  writings  of  the  apostles. 

God  has  dealt  with  mankind  as  a  father  deals  with  his 
children,  revealing  to  them  ideas  proportionate  to  their 
powers  of  comprehension.  Moses  was  commissioned  to 
deliver  only  the  truths  absolutely  necessary  for  the  well- 
being  of  the  Jews.  Additional  elements  of  the  divine 
thought  were  added  from  time  to  time  by  the  prophets. 
A  great  advance  was  made  in  Revelation  when  Jesus  ap- 
peared, giving  clear  utterance  to  the  mysteries  of  eternity, 
which  mysteries  were  formulated  and  revealed  in  their 
human  relations  by  the  apostles.  But  in  spite  of  this 
progress,  there  is  a  fundamental  unity  in  the  teaching  of 
the  Bible,  which  is  thus  proved  divine. 

The  parallels  of  ideas  pertain  strictly  to  these  funda- 
mental truths,  which  are  woven  into  the  whole  texture 
of  Revelation.  The  value  of  this  method  of  interpreta- 
tion, therefore,  is  made  up  of  two  facts :  (a)  the  universal 
occurrence  of  certain  great  truths  in  Scripture,  and  (&) 
the  greater  and  clearer  development  of  these  truths  in 
some  portions  of  the  Bible  than  in  others.  The  compar- 
ison of  several  parallels  of  ideas  presents  the  same  idea 


184  Biblical  Hcrmcncutics. 


under  different  forms  of  expression  and  in  different 
stages  of  development— hence  its  utility  in  the  science 
and  practice  of  interpretation. 

The  task  to  be  attempted  in  this  connection  is  three- 
fold : 

1.  To  classify  and  graduate  the  several  categories  of 
parallels. 

2.  To  appreciate,  the  real  utility  to  be  derived  there- 
from. 

3.  To  indicate  the  rules  to  be  employed  and  the  pre- 
cautions to  be  taken  in  studying  parallels  of  ideas. 

A.  CLASSIFICATION  AND  GRADUATION  OF  THE 
PARALLELS  OF  IDEAS. 

§  103.    NECESSITY    AND     PRINCIPLE     OF     THIS     CLASSI- 
FICATION. 

All  the  biblical  passages,  although  analogous  and  par- 
allel, can  not  be  employed  with  the  same  security  and 
force.  What  has  been  said  of  the  progress  in  revelation 
demonstrates  that  there  must  be  some  difference  in 
their  availability.  Some  principle  of  classification  is 
therefore  necessary  to  serve  as  a  touchstone  by  which  to 
test  the  value  of  the  different  passages. 

The  employment  of  parallels  rests  upon  a  calculation 
of  probability.  It  is  probable  that  two  biblical  passages, 
possessing  a  certain  analogy  as  to  form,  language,  and 
matter,  express  the  same  idea ;  it  is  right  consequently 
to  deduce  from  the  clearer  passage  the  sense  of  the  more 
obscure.  This  is  the  essence  of  the  Parallels  of  Ideas. 
This  probability  must  vary,  evidently,  (a)  according  to 
the  number  and  nature  of  the  passages,  and  {b)  according 
to  their  distribution  throughout  the  Bible.  As  to  the 
first  cause  of  variability  no  precise  formula  or  apprecia- 
tion can  be  given.     Critical  tact  and  judgment  are  nee- 


Parallels  of  Ideas.  185 

cssary  in  determining  what  value  is  to  be  given  to  the 
greater  or  less  abundance  of  passages.  We  refer  par- 
ticularly to  the  rules  hereafter  given  for  guidance  in  this 
difficult  matter. 

But  as  to  the  second  source  of  variability  in  this 
probability,  viz:  that  which  pertains  to  the  distribution 
of  the  parallel  passages,  some  approximation  to  definite- 
ness  may  be  made,  and  this  we  shall  proceed  to  attempt. 
We  shall  appeal  to  the  evident  principle,  that  the 
more  the  authors  of  the  texts  compared  were  similar 
as  to  the  individuality  of  their  characters  and  the 
occasionality  of  their  writings,  the  more  there  is  of  prob- 
ability that  the  texts  treat  of  the  same  subject  and  an- 
nounce the  same  idea. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  classification  of  parallels 
should  be  made  in  the  inverse  order  to  that  of  the  Anal- 
ogy of  Faith  made  above.  In  regard  to  the  latter,  it 
was  taken  for  granted  that  the  passages  are  parallel  and 
numerous ;  here  we  must  suppose  but  few  passages,  the 
parallelism  of  which  is  the  doubtful  quantity  and  con- 
stitutes the  problem  to  be  solved.  In  the  Analogy  of 
Faith  it  was  necessary  to  affirm  a  truth  from  the  evident 
identity  of  many  passages  ;  in  the  Parallels  it  is  required 
to  explain  a  passage  from  the  probability  of  this  iden- 
tity ;  and  this  probability  itself  must  be  established. 
The  Analogy  of  Faith  is  strong  in  proportion  as  the 
passages  are  dispersed  throughout  the  Bible,  while  the 
Parallel  Ideas  are  rendered  more  certain  in  proportion 
as  they  are  found  in  authors  of  similar  mental  character- 
istics, and  in  books  that  treat  of  the  same  or  similar 
subjects. 

§  I04.   ATTEMPT   AT   GRADUATION. 

I.  The  lowest  degree  of  Parallels  will  be  composed  of 
the  passages  taken  at  random  from  the  Bible,  without 


1 86  Biblical  Hermenentics. 

reference  to  the  kinds  of  writings,  their  epochs  or  au- 
thors. If,  in  this  case,  the  truth  examined  enters  also 
into  the  Analogy  of  Faith,  this  degree  of  parallelism  will 
not  be  without  value,  for  there  will  be  a  real  probability 
that  they  express  the  same  idea.  But  if  the  collated 
passages  form  no  part  of  an  Analogy  of  Faith  this  prob- 
ability will  disappear. 

2.  A  somewhat  superior  degree  will  be  composed  of 
the  parallel  texts  which  have  been  taken  from  the  Old 
Testament  alone ;  but  still  with  no  reference  to  the 
writings,  epochs,  and  authors.  Here  the  probability  will 
be  increased  as  a  result  of  the  general  identity  of  the 
provisional  and  preparatory  revelation  contained  in  the 
first  sacred  code. 

3.  A  third  degree  will  be  composed  of  parallels  gath- 
ered from  contemporary  authors  who  were  not  simi- 
larly placed,  or  who  were  similarly  situated  without  being 
contemporary.  The  writings  of  the  New  Testament, 
when  they  are  of  different  natures  and  of  different  au- 
thorships, pertain  to  this  degree ;  also  those  of  the  Old 
Testament  writers  who,  although  not  writing  in  the  same 
epoch,  have  fulfilled  the  same  ministry,  as  Isaiah  and 
Ezekiel ;  also  those  of  the  writers  who  were  almost  con- 
temporaries, although  not  receiving  the  same  commis- 
sion, as  Ezra  and  Malachi. 

4.  A  superior  category  still  will  include  the  writers 
who  were  contemporaneous  and  similarly  situated,  as 
Isaiah  and  the  prophets  of  his  epoch,  as  Haggai  and 
Zephaniah,  as  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul. 

5.  Still  higher  must  be  placed  the  parallels  taken  from 
the  different  writings  of  the  same  author ;  as  from  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  and  the  pastoral  Epistles.  To 
this  category  may  be  referred  the  discourses  of  Jesus 
reported  in  the  different  Gospels.  . 

6.  The  next  highest  degree  will  be  composed  of  the 


Parallels  of  Ideas.  187 


parallels  collected  from  the  same  writings,  or  from  the 
different  analogous  writings  of  the  same  author,  as  from 
the  different  Psalms  of  David  treating  of  the  same  sub- 
ject, or  from  the  pastoral  Epistles.  To  this  degree  may 
be  referred  the  discourses  of  Christ  reported  in  the  same 
Gospel. 

7.  The  highest  degree  of  probability  may  be  attached 
to  the  parallels  taken  from  the  same  part  of  the  same 
writing,  and,  in  reference  to  the  discourses  of  Christ, 
from  the  same  portion  of  the  same  Gospel. 

If  it  is  desired  to  press  this  climax  still  farther  to  a 
degree  of  probability  yet  superior,  this  subject  will  ter- 
minate in  the  context.  The  parallels  of  ideas  contained 
in  a  single  context  combine  the  probability  of  the  paral- 
lels and  the  certainty  of  the  context.  The  great  utility 
of  the  latter  instrument  of  interpretation  will  thus  be 
manifest. 

B.  APPRECIATION  OF  THE  UTILITY  OF  PARALLELS. 

§  IO5.   CONSIDERED   GENERALLY. 

The  comparison  of  parallel  passages  is  singularly  at- 
tractive to  the  interpreter.  There  is  much  danger  of  its 
being  erroneously  employed  by  the  student  unacquaint- 
ed with  the  science  of  correct  interpretation  and  not 
given  to  critical  habits.  There  is  something  very  at- 
tractive and  animating  in  this  comparison  of  two  distinct 
passages,  which  are  dissimilar  in  appearance,  and  yet,  on 
being  united  are  found  to  be  inspired  by  the  same 
thought  and  to  render  testimony  to  the  same  truth. 
This  discovery  often  acts,  like  a  valuable  and  sudden 
acquisition,  upon  the  heart  of  the  interpreter,  stimulating 
him  to  greater  diligence  and  attaching  him  closely  to 
so  successful  a  method. 

To  avoid  the  great  danger  of  mistake  in  the  usage  of 


1 88  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

this  means,  it  is  necessary  to  bear  constantly  in  mir.d 
that  the  parallels  rest  entirely  upon  a  calculation  of 
probability.  This  probability  has  force  only  in  reference 
to  the  authors  who  are  very  closely  connected,  and 
should  be  esteemed  important  only  after  a  careful  ex- 
amination of  each  parallel  with  the  aid  of  the  several 
contexts.  In  reference  to  the  parallels  of  words,  on  the 
contrary,  the  probability  is  much  more  considerable, 
amounting  almost  to  a  certainty.  This  is  because  the 
repetition  of  a  word  in  two  or  more  passages  is  a  patent 
fact,  about  which  there  can  be  no  doubt.  Moreover, 
there  is  always  a  strong  probability  that  a  word  repre- 
sents very  nearly  the  same  idea  upon  all.  occasions.  But 
this  certainty  is  wanting  in  regard  to  the*  Parallels  of 
Ideas,  and  thus  the  employment  of  this  species  of  paral- 
lel often  conduces  to  error.  Still  this  instrument,  when 
cautiously  and  judiciously  used,  is  not  without  great 
utility. 

§  1 06.   PARTICULAR   CASES   OF   UTILITY. 

There  are  several  detailed  benefits  to  be  derived  from 
the  study  of  the  Parallels  of  Ideas. 

1.  The  most  common  of  these  benefits  is  the  expla- 
nation of  obscure  passages.  This  has,  of  necessity,  been 
mentioned  in  the  previous  discussion.  A  difficult  pas- 
sage may  be  elucidated  not  a  little  by  comparing  it  with 
another  passage  in  which  the  same  truth  is  more  clearly 
or  more  fully  discussed. 

In  Col.  i.  20  the  Apostle  declares  that  God  has  been 
pleased  to  reconcile  all  things  unto  Himself  "by  the 
blood  of  the  cross,"  "  whether  they  be  things  in  earth 
or  things  in  heaven."  This  passage  is  striking — even 
surprising — and  decidedly  obscure.  The  same  idea  is 
found  in  Eph.  i.  10,  although  somewhat  more  clearly 
affirmed  and  with  one  added  circumstance,  that  of  the 


Parallels  of  Ideas.  189 


time  in  which  this  shall  be  accomplished.  These  two 
passages  receive  some  additional  light,  although  still  re- 
maining somewhat  obscure,  by  comparing  them  with 
1  Cor.  xv.  23-28,  where  St.  Paul  describes  the  order  of 
the  resurrection. 

2.  The  historical  facts  of  the  Bible  are  frequently  con- 
firmed and  completed  by  the  parallels  of  ideas.  The 
incidents  and  recitals  esteemed  worthy  of  inspired  record 
are  found  in  different  places  in  the  Bible  ;  hence  there 
is  opportunity  for  a  historical  parallel,  or  comparison,  of 
ideas  from  which  great  benefit  may  be  derived. 

As  an  example  of  confirming  the  records  of  Scripture 
by  this  comparison,  reference  may  be  made  to  the  three 
distinct  accounts  of  the  conversion  of  St.  Paul  (Acts  ix., 
xxii.,  and  xxvi.)  These  three  narratives  are  not  couched 
in  the  same  terms,  and  each  presents  some  special  de- 
tails. But  between,  and  underlying,  the  three  recitals 
there  is  a  remarkable  accord,  all  the  circumstances  of  any 
interest  being  found  in  each,  and  the  whole  account  thus 
deriving  a  color  of  certainty  and  exactness,  which  no  one 
can  fail  to  recognize. 

As  an  example  of  the  narrations  being  completed  by 
the  historical  parallels,  may  be  mentioned  the  incident 
of  Mary  pouring  upon  Jesus  a  perfume  of  great  price, 
thus  incurring  the  censure  of  Judas  Iscariot  at  the  same 
time  that  she  received  the  praise  of  the  Saviour.  Comp. 
Matt.  xxvi.  6-13  ;  Mark  xiv.  3-9,  and  John  xii.  1-8. 

In  Matt,  and  Mark  this  history  is  full  of  interest  and 
instruction,  but  both  evangelists  observe  silence,  perhaps 
intentionally,  concerning  the  name  of  this  grateful 
woman  and  that  of  the  discontented  disciple.  John 
alone  gives  these  details  and  thus  completes  the  recital. 
He,  moreover,  by  this  very  fact,  causes  the  occasion  of 
this  action  to  be  understood,  linking  it  to  the  sepulture  of 
Lazarus,  for  whom  the  perfume  may  have  been  designed. 


[90  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

This  circumstance,  also,  explains  the  touching  allusion 
of  our  Saviour  (Matt.  xxvi.  12,  and  Mark  xiv.  8),  "She 
hath  prepared  afore-hand  My  body  for  the  burial."  On 
the  other  hand,  the  first  two  evangelists  alone  give  the 
important  prediction  of  the  Saviour  in  regard  to  the 
future  celebrity  of  this  action  throughout  the  whole 
world. 

3.  The  teachings  of  the  Bible  are  also  completed  and 
developed  by  the  parallels  of  ideas.  We  would  natu- 
rally expect  that  a  doctrine  of  any  importance  would  be 
met  with  more  than  once  in  the  Bible ;  hence  a  com- 
parison of  the  parallel  passages,  in  which  such  a  doctrine 
may  be  found,  will  throw  much  light  upon  its  true  nat- 
ure. These  passages  are  mutually  supplementary.  The 
different  points  of  view  under  which  they  present  the 
truth  ;  the  diversity  of  the  details  thrown  in  ;  the  meta- 
phors employed  and  forms  chosen  in  the  several  pas- 
sages, are  adapted  to  give  a  well-developed  idea  of  what 
can  be  but  imperfectly  derived  from  a  single  passage. 
This  development  is,  however,  only  attained  in  refer- 
ence to  those  truths  which  are  sustained  and  bound 
together  by  the  Analogy  of  Faith.  The  analogy  affirms 
and  demonstrates  them  while  the  parallels  explain  and 
co-ordinate  them.  These  two  methods  are,  therefore, 
mutually  sustaining  and  complementary.  Together  they 
may  be  safely  employed,  and  will  be  very  useful  in  de- 
termining the  sense  of  Scripture.  Studying  the  two- 
fold nature  of  man,  and  the  inward  combat  to  which  he 
is  subjected  by  sin,  we  will  find  it  of  great  use  to  com- 
pare Rom.  vii.  17-23  and  Gal.  v.  17.  In  these  passages 
the  teaching  will  be  found  almost  the  same :  although 
the  first  describes  the  combat  much  better,  while  the 
second  defines  it  more  clearly,  connecting  it  with  prin- 
ciples which  lead  us  to  victory.  The  comparison  of  the 
two  is  of  great  practical  utility. 


Parallels  of  Ideas.  191 

4.  The  parallels  of  ideas,  moreover,  enable  us  to  esti- 
mate the  certainty  of  the  teachings  of  the  Bible.  These 
parallels,  according  to  their  number  and  unanimity, 
enable  us  to  attach  full  evidence,  or  sufficient  conviction, 
or  great  probability,  or  uncertainty,  to  the  doctrine 
studied. 

{a).  Full  evidence  is  attached  to  a  truth  which  is  sus- 
tained by  many  unanimous  passages.  Such  a  truth  may 
be  found  in  Rom.  iv.  25,  where  Paul  affirms  that  Christ 
died  for  our  offences.  If  this  passage  was  solitary,  the 
truth  would  be  surprising  and  difficult  to  be  understood. 
But  the  same  doctrine  is  frequently  found  (1)  in  the 
same  epistle  (iii.  25  ;  v.  6,  etc.);  (2)  in  the  other  writings 
of  St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  xv.  3  ;  2  Cor.  v.  21  ;  Gal.  i.  4;  Eph. 
v.  2,  etc.) ;  (3)  in  the  other  writings  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment (Matt.  xx.  28;  John  x.  1 1  ;  I  Pet.  i.  18,  etc.);  (4) 
and  even  in  the  Old  Testament  (Isa.  liii.  and  Dan.  ix.) 
Thus  we  have  for  this  doctrine,  on  the  one  hand,  all  the 
clearness  and  precision  given  by  the  method  of  the  par- 
allels, and,  on  the  other  hand,  all  the  certainty  produced 
by  the  Analogy  of  Faith. 

(&).  In  other  cases  the  parallels  may  be  sufficiently 
numerous,  unanimous,  and  clear  to  carry  complete  con- 
viction to  the  mind,  without,  however,  being  sufficient 
to  establish  the  Analogy  of  Faith.  As  an  example,  we 
may  give  what  is  recorded  of  the  nature  and  effects  of 
the  Lord's  supper. 

(c).  When  the  parallels  are  inferior  in  number,  unan- 
imity, and  especially  clearness,  they  can  only  bring  to 
the  mind  a  conviction  of  great  probability. 

(d).  Sometimes  the  parallels  render  a  service  of  an- 
other nature,  by  causing  some  uncertainty  to  remain 
around  a  teaching  of  the  Bible.  An  example  will  best 
explain  this  idea.  In  1  Cor.  vi.  2,  3,  Paul  recalls  to  the 
Corinthians,  as  a  thing  well  known  to  all  the  Church, 


Lg2  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

that  the  saints  shall  judge  the  world,  and  especially  the 
angels.  A  parallel  passage  in  Matt.  xix.  28  teaches  ex- 
pressly the  same  truth,  restricting  the  prediction,  how- 
ever, to  the  twelve  apostles,  who  in  the  world  to  come 
will  judge  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel.  The  positive  and 
detailed  tone  of  this  declaration  leaves  us  in  doubt  in 
regard  to  the  reality  of  the  instruction.  Luke  mentions 
the  same  prediction  of  the  Saviour,  giving  to  it,  how- 
ever, a  still  more  metaphorical  character  (xxii.  30).  To 
Paul's  allusion  alone  we  might  attach  a  definite,  although 
somewhat  intangible  idea ;  but  a  comparison  of  these 
several  passages  forces  us  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
truth  mentioned  is  above  our  present  comprehension, 
and  must  remain  uncertain  until  we  "  know  even  as  also 
we  are  known." 

C.  RULES  AND  CAUTIONS. 

1.  IN  THE  CHOICE  OF  PARALLELS. 

§  107.   AVOID   THE   PARALLELS   OF  WORDS. 

The  parallels  of  words  possess  a  certain  utility,  and 
even  a  great  philological  value.  Reference  has  been 
made  to  them  in  Grammatical  Hermeneutics.  But  their 
object,  method,  and  use  differ  entirely  from  those  of  the 
parallels  of  ideas.  Much  confusion  and  mistake,  there- 
fore, arise  from  taking  the  one  for  the  other.  There  is 
great  danger  of  this  error,  since  there  is  often  a  difficulty 
in  distinguishing  them,  and  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the 
interpreter  to  get  light  from  what  seems  to  be  a  reliable 
and  attractive  source. 

The  substitution  of  parallels  of  words  for  parallels  of 
ideas  is  founded  on  the  sophism  that  a  given  word  al- 
ways expresses  in  the  Bible  the  same  idea,  in  spite  of  the 
context  and  the  subject  matter  under  debate.  We  have 
before  remarked  that  the  probability  is  that  a  word  ex- 


Parallels  of  Ideas.  193 

presses  a  uniform  idea.  But  the  actual  employment  of 
a  word  may  vary  according  to  the  context,  which  may 
declare  it  to  be  literal  or  figurative,  exact  or  metaphori- 
cal, abstract  or  concrete. 

This  confusion  of  parallels  may  be  so  apparent  as  to 
excite  attention,  or  so  concealed  as  to  escape  notice ; 
and  in  the  latter  case  is  particularly  dangerous.  A  cate- 
chism of  the  Romish  Church  says  that  it  is  necessary  to 
render  worship  to  Joseph,  the  husband  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  because  in  Genesis  (xli.  55),  Pharaoh  said  to  the 
Egyptians:  Ite  ad  Joscphum,  "  Go  unto  Joseph."  This 
confounding  of  a  parallel  of  words  for  one  of  ideas  is 
not  alarming,  since  the  error  is  so  apparent  to  every  one 
who  has  studied  the  Bible.  But  in  many  other  cases  of 
greater  importance,  there  is  danger  of  an  adroit  use  of 
this  sophism  which  will  escape  the  notice  of  the  inter- 
preter and  lead  him  into  error. 

§  108.   AVOID   SEEMING  BUT  FALSE   PARALLELS. 

There  is  a  further  danger  of  mistaking  seeming  par- 
allels for  those  passages  which  are  really  such.  A  com- 
mon example  of  this  mistake  is  in  supposing  that  1  Cor. 
iii.  16  and  17,  and  1  Cor.  vi.  19  are  parallels  of  ideas.  In 
both  Paul  affirms  that  his  readers  are  the  temples  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.  The  former  of  these  passages,  being  some- 
what obscure,  has  been  very  naturally  interpreted  by 
referring  to  the  latter,  which  is  absolutely  definite,  and 
the  conclusion  has  uniformly  been  adopted  that,  in  both 
passages,  the  apostle  styles  the  body  of  the  believer  the 
temple  of  God's  Spirit.  A  close  examination  of  the 
context  of  the  first  passage  will  reveal  that  he  is  there 
speaking  of  the  entire  church  of  Corinth,  while  in  the 
second  he  evidently  refers  to  a  single  believer.  These 
passages  are,  therefore,  analogous,  but  by  no  means 
parallel. 

9 


194  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

Similar  mistakes  are  frequent  in  the  theological  writ- 
ings of  the  day.  Resembling  phrases  have  been  taken 
for  parallels.  Passages  having  merely  an  external  and 
superficial  relation,  ideas  expressed  in  analogous  ways, 
and  designed  to  be  eventually  completed  and  limited, 
must  not  be  confounded  with  those  repetitions  of  ideas, 
upon  which  valid  arguments  may  be  founded. 

We  have  in  history  a  singular  example  of  this  peculiar 
mistake.  At  the  Council  of  Trent,  one  of  the  orators 
supported  his  idea  of  the  communion,  that  it  should 
consist  merely  of  the  bread,  upon  I  Sam.  xiv.  27,  where 
the  exhausted  Jonathan  is  represented  as  eating  a  little 
honey  without  stopping  to  drink.  The  absurdity  of  his 
reference  overthrew  the  force  of  his  argument.  Two 
additional  examples,  which  are  not  so  apparently  absurd, 
and  therefore  more  to  be  feared,  may  be  sufficient  on 
this  point.  The  evangelist  John  (i.  3)  affirms  that  all 
things  were  made  by  the  Logos,  or  the  Word — by  which 
expression  it  is  easy  to  recognize  the  divine  Saviour. 
Some  have  adduced  as  proof  of  this  statement  the  sup- 
posed parallel  in  those  words  of  the  Psalmist  (Ps.  xxxiii. 
6) :  "  By  the  word  of  the  Lord  were  the  heavens  made." 
This  is  to  misconceive  the  sense  and  the  context  of  this 
last  passage,  which  makes  allusion  to  those  remarkable 
words  in  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis :  "  God  said,  '  Let 
there  be  light  and  there  was  light.'  "  Yet  while  there  is 
obvious  allusion  to  the  history  of  the  creation  in  Gene- 
sis, at  the  same  time  it  may  not  be  a  mere  fortuitous 
coincidence  that  the  term  "  word,"  used  in  the  Psalm,  is 
employed  in  Scripture  to  designate  the  second  person  of 
the  Godhead. 

The  other  example  is  derived  from  the  Lord's  Prayer. 
The  Saviour  teaches  us  to  say  to  the  Father :  "  Give  us 
this  day  our  daily  bread."  This  prayer,  however,  ap- 
pears too  vulgar  or  casual  to  some  men,  who  seem  to 


Parallels  of  Ideas.  195 


think  themselves  wiser  than  the  God  of  nature  and  prov- 
idence. They  prefer  to  understand  this  petition  as  refer- 
ring to  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  This  unjustifiable 
idea  they  endeavor  to  establish  in  the  succeeding  verses 
(Luke  xi.  1 1-1 3)  wherein  the  Saviour  teaches  that,  as 
earthly  fathers  give  bread  to  their  children,  so  will  God 
bestow  His  Holy  Spirit  upon  those  who  ask  Him.  Be- 
tween these  passages,  however,  there  is  simply  a  connec- 
tion, without  real  parallelism.  This  forced  explanation 
is  contradicted  by  the  double  context,  and  is  proved 
false  by  the  fact  that  it  breaks  the  sense  and  clearness 
of  the  teaching. 

The  true  interpreter  should  be  contented  neither  with 
slight  appearances  nor  with  vague  relations.  Before 
employing  two  or  more  passages  as  parallel,  he  should 
conscientiously  assure  himself  of  the  separate  sense  of 
each,  studying  them  analytically,  carefully,  and  with 
reference  to  the  context.  Without  these  precautions  he 
runs  a  great  risk  of  teaching  error  and  falsifying  the 
word  of  God.  He  will  not  allow  himself  to  be  led  astray 
by  any  pleasurable  anticipation  of  surprising  others  by 
his  brilliant  parallels  of  divine  truth. 

2.  RULES  AND   CAUTIONS   IN  THE  USE  OF  THE 
PARALLELS. 

§  IO9.   LOGICAL    USE. 

The  parallel  texts,  when  once  properly  chosen,  and  their 
parallelism  demonstrated,  must  now  be  brought  together 
and  compared  in  a  logical  manner.  Thus  a  prominent 
principle  is  reached,  that  the  more  obscure  passage 
should  be  explained  by  the  more  perspicuous. 

Although  this  principle  seems  self-evident,  it  has  often 
been  forgotten  and  even  systematically  opposed.  There- 
fore it  is  necessary  to  present  a  proof,  as  nearly  mathe- 


196  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

matical  as  possible,  of  this  almost  axiomatic  truth. 
Such  a  proof  can  be  given. 

The  greater  or  less  clearness  of  a  passage  is  equivalent 
to  a  greater  or  less  probability  that  the  passage  contains 
the  truth.  Any  two  passages  in  question  are  therefore 
represented  by  unequal  probabilities  which  may  be  ex- 
pressed in  figures.  To  explain  the  more  obscure  text 
by  the  more  perspicuous  is  to  raise  the  inferior  proba- 
bility to  the  level  of  the  superior,  endowing  the  passage 
which,  for  example,  has  one-third  of  clearness  to  the 
three-fourths  value  of  the  other  passage.  On  the  con- 
trary, to  explain  the  more  perspicuous  text  by  the  more 
obscure  would  be  to  reduce  the  superior  probability  to 
the  level  of  the  inferior,  exchanging  three-fourths  of 
certainty  for  one-third. 

An  analysis  of  the  causes  which  regulate  the  relative 
clearness  of  a  number  of  passages  will  lead  to  the  same 
result.  The  perspicuity  and  importance  of  a  passage 
will  be  proportionate :  (a)  To  the  degree  in  which  it  is 
disengaged  from  foreign  elements,  {b)  To  the  complete- 
ness with  which  it  presents  all  the  elements  of  the  idea, 
(c)  To  the  degree  in  which  both  of  these  objects  are  at- 
tained, and  (d)  To  the  correctness  and  regularity  of  the 
language  in  which  the  proposition  is  expressed.  If  these 
four  principles  predominate  in  one  passage,  and  are 
almost  excluded  from  another,  the  latter  is  more  obscure 
and  must  be  explained  by  the  former. 

This  seems  so  evident  that  it  may  be  asked  :  Upon 
what  then  can  a  person  rest  who  prefers  to  explain  a 
perspicuous  passage  by  its  obscure  parallel  ?  Upon  the 
mistake  that,  as  the  obscure  passage  may  be  the  more 
important,  it  is  necessary  to  subordinate  the  less  impor- 
tant text  to  that  which  is  of  more  importance.  To  which 
we  have  two  objections. 

1.  The  importance  of  a  passage  is  a  variable  quantity, 


Parallels  of  Ideas.  197 

while  the  clearness  of  an  expression  is  absolute.  The 
latter  can  be  established  by  grammatical  and  logical 
rules,  while  the  former  may  be  determined  differently  by 
each  individual.  Every  student  will  measure  the  impor- 
tance of  a  passage  from  his  peculiar  point  of  view.  He 
will  ascribe  superior  value  to  the  text  which  sustains  his 
theological  system  and  is  favorable  to  his  polemics. 
Hence  this  principle  is  of  uncertain  application  and  is 
useless  as  a  rule. 

2.  The  employment  of  this  principle  involves  an  argu- 
mentum  in  circulo.  If  we  analyze  it  we  will  find  the  fol- 
lowing series  of  propositions  co-existing  in  the  mind  of 
him  who  demands  its  application  : 

(a).  A  given  doctrine  is  certainly  taught. 

(b).  In  fact  it  is  proved  by  passage  A. 

(r).  If  passage  A.  seems  to  be  contradicted  by  passage 
B.  the  latter  ought  to  be  subordinated  to  the  former  and 
explained  accordingly. 

(d).  For  passage  A.  is  the  more  important. 

(/).  This  superior  importance  of  passage  A.  results 
from  the  fact  that  the  doctrine  which  it  teaches  is,  at 
once,  important  and  certainly  taught. 

The  absurdity  of  the  opposing  principle  being  thus 
apparent,  we  appeal  with  confidence  to  the  rule  that  an 
obscure  passage  should  be  explained  by  one  that  is  more 
perspicuous.  Just  here,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  in- 
vestigate the  true  nature  of  that  doctrinal  clearness 
which  is  to  be  expected  in  the  sacred  volume. 

§  IIO.  TRUE  NATURE  OF  DOCTRINAL  CLEARNESS. 

Our  readers  have  previously  been  warned  against  for- 
getting that  there  are  necessary  obscurities  in  religion, 
pertaining  to  the  unknown  and  mysterious  nature  of 
revealed  truth.     It  should  be  expected  that  this  truth, 


198  Biblical  Hcrmeneutics. 

although  revealed,  would  still  retain  certain  unintelligi- 
ble elements  to  us,  as  it  pertains  to  an  order  of  ideas 
which  the  human  mind  can  not  fully  seize  and  human 
language  can  not  adequately  express.  A  religion  without 
obscurities  should  be,  on  that  very  account,  suspected  of 
being  both  incomplete  and  human.  In  reference  to  this 
kind  of  obscurity,  clearness  of  human  language  and 
thought  can  not  exist.  Our  analysis  and  reasonings, 
deduced  from  natural  notions  and  human  facts,  do  not 
avail  to  explain  the  difficulties  of  which  we  have  spoken, 
and  no  employment  of  parallels  will  be  capable  of  dissi- 
pating them. 

There  are,  however,  certain  obscurities,  which  arise 
from  the  incomplete,  confused,  complex,  and  figurative 
character  of  the  biblical  language,  and  these  may  in  a 
measure  be  explained.  This  explanation  should  be  de- 
rived from  other  analogous  passages  which  possess  the 
desirable  clearness  by  reason  of  the  positive,  exact,  and 
uniform  language  in  which  they  are  couched. 

Clearness  of  language  and  obscurity  of  doctrine  are 
often  found  together.  Thus  in  1  Cor.  viii.  6,  we  find  a 
passage  which  is  at  once  perspicuous  as  an  assertion,  and 
obscure  as  a  doctrine :  "  But  to  us  there  is  but  one  God, 
the  Father,  of  whom  are  all  things,  and  we  in  Him  ;  and 
one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  by  whom  are  all  things,  and  we 
by  Him."  This  passage  presents  a  great  mystery  in  re- 
gard to  the  divine  nature  of  the  Saviour.  But,  at  the 
same  time,  its  positive  and  absolute  character,  and  its 
symmetrical  clearness,  render  it  of  great  authority  when 
compared  with  other  passages  on  the  same  subject. 

Take  an  example  of  the  manner  in  which  a  clear  pas- 
sage ought  to  be  employed  in  the  explanation  of  an  ob- 
scure one.  In  John  i.  29,  John  the  Baptist  calls  Jesus 
"  the  Lamb  of  God  which  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the 
world."     This  language  is  clear  as  to  the  removal  of  sin, 


Parallels  of  Ideas.  199 

but  obscure  as  to  the  mode,  and  obscure,  also,  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  sins  removed.  It  might  be  understood  of 
sins  past  and  pardoned,  or  of  sins  future  and  prevented. 
Now  St.  John  (1  John  ii.  2)  says  that  Jesus  is  "  the 
propitiation  for  our  sins  :  and  not  for  ours  only,  but  also 
for  the  sins  of  the  whole  world."  This  passage  is  clear 
as  to  the  removal  of  sin,  clear  as  to  the  mode,  and  clear 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  sins  in  question.  But  it  is  ob- 
scure as  to  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  expiation.  In 
short,  the  first  passage  is  obscure  by  reason  of  the  vague- 
ness of  the  idea,  and  the  second  only  by  reason  of  the 
mystery  of  the  doctrine.  Hence  it  is  necessary  to  ex- 
plain the  first  by  the  second,  and  not  the  second  by  the 
first,  as  one  would  be  tempted  to  do  if  he  should  pre- 
occupy himself  with  the  obscurity  in  the  idea  of  expia- 
tion. 

§  III.   CAREFUL  AND   JUDICIOUS   USE. 

What  has  been  said  is  sufficient  demonstration  of  the 
fact  that  parallels  are  often  dangerous  instruments,  and 
of  the  prudent  reserve  with  which  the  interpreter  should 
make  use  of  them.  An  extreme  use  has  been  made  of 
them  by  certain  old  theologians  who  insisted  upon  the 
doctrine  of  absolute  theopneusty.  Taking  every  word 
of  the  Bible  to  be  individually  inspired  they  were  accus- 
tomed to  isolate  a  word  from  its  phrase  and  attach  sin- 
gular mysteries  to  it.  These  mysteries  were  sustained 
by  other  words  taken  from  other  parts  of  the  Sacred 
Book,  and  regarded  as  parallels. 

Thus  they  were  often  led  into  error.  Special  care 
must  be  taken,  also,  not  to  be  misled  by  the  references 
found  in  our  Bibles.  These  profess  to  indicate  the  pas- 
sages parallel  to  the  verse  treated,  but  they  must  be 
verified  critically  and  judiciously  before  they  may  form 
the  basis  of  any  interpretation. 


200  Biblical  Hermejieutics. 

SECTION  THIRD. 

SPECIAL  STUDY  OF  EACH  OF  THE  SACRED  BOOKS. 

§  112.   PRINCIPLE   OF  THIS   STUDY. 

THE  individuality  of  the  authors  is  the  principle  upon 
which  this  study  is  based.  The  discussion  of  this  in- 
dividuality will  be  found  in  Doctrinal  Hermeneutics  and 
must  here  be  taken  for  granted.  It  is  very  easy  to  dis- 
cover that  the  sacred  writers  have  preserved  their  human 
characteristics  to  a  certain  degree,  and  these  of  necessity 
exert  an  influence  (a)  upon  the  language,  (b)  the  method, 
and  (c)  the  doctrine  of  the  Bible.  As  to  this  influence 
upon  language  there  has  already  been  enough  said  in 
Grammatical  and  Historical  Hermeneutics.  The  dis- 
cussion here  will  be  in  reference  to  the  influence  of  in- 
dividuality upon  the  method  and  doctrine. 

These  two  topics  are  related  somewhat  to  the  Analogy 
of  Faith  and  to  the  Parallels  of  Ideas.  This  relation  should 
be  noticed  just  here,  as  being  useful  in  the  elucidation  of 
the  subject  before  us.  The  special  study  of  the  method 
and  teaching  of  the  writings  by  the  same  author  can  not, 
indeed,  give  us  the  general  or  biblical  Analogy  of  Faith ; 
but  it  gives  the  Analogy  of  Faith  of  that  author,  and 
this  is  of  importance.  It  is  even  of  much  importance  if 
the  author  studied  occupies  an  extended  place  in  the 
Bible.  Moreover,  the  biblical  Analogy  of  Faith  results 
from  the  sum  of  the  individual  analogies  of  each  sacred 
author.  That  this  subject  is  related  to  the  parallels,  will 
appear  when  we  remember  that  the  special  study  of 
each  book  will  disclose,  place  in  prominence,  and  eluci- 
date many  analogous  passages  which,  upon  compari- 
son, will  be  found  to  be  parallel. 


Special  Study  of  the  Sacred  Books.      201 


§  II3.   THE   SUBJECT   DEVELOPED. 

I.  Method  of  each  Sacred  Author. — Under  this  gen- 
eral title  may  be  grouped  all  the  forms  which  are  natural 
to  an  author  or  habitually  employed  in  his  communica- 
tion of  thought  and  emotion.  His  mode  of  reasoning 
and  poetry,  the  outbreaks  of  his  piety  and  the  trans- 
ports of  his  imagination,  the  nature  of  his  deductions 
and  polemics,  are  all  influenced  by  his  individuality. 

In  the  study  of  the  Old  Testament  prophets,  for  ex- 
ample, the  interpreter  who  knows  how  to  analyze  their 
diversities  and  resemblances  can  derive  much  light  from 
this  comparison.  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  are  as  much  allied 
by  the  nature  of  their  pious  and  devout  minds,  as  they 
differ  in  the  rich  imagination,  the  simple  and  powerful 
eloquence  of  the  former,  as  compared  with  the  sorrowful 
and  plaintive  strain  of  the  latter.  No  one  can  fail  to 
note  the  difference  between  the  studied  style  of  the 
poetical  and  pathetic  Joel  and  the  unstudied  manner  of 
the  animated  and  incisive  details  of  Hosea.  Similar 
comparisons  must  be  noticed  in  reference  to  all  the 
writers  of  the  Old  Testament. 

The  same  is  true  in  regard  to  the  New  Testament 
authors.  The  writings  of  James  are  characterized  by 
profound  thoughts,  clearly-cut  phrases,  and  severe  forms. 
John  seems  to  be  raised  almost  to  heaven  in  order  to 
contemplate  there  the  mysterious  treasures  of  the  life  in 
God  and  to  bring  them  thence  to  earth.  How  can  we 
describe  the  style  of  Paul,  with  its  wonderful  variety, 
striking  contrasts,  and  logical  force  !  Every  one  must  be 
struck  by  the  extent  of  his  thoughts,  the  directness  and 
ability  of  his  logic,  the  great  elevation  of  his  emotions, 
and  his  touching  self-abnegation  as  being  already  dead 
and  raised  in  Christ.  The  individual  characteristics  of 
9* 


202  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

these,  and  indeed  of  all  the  New  Testament  writers,  are 
necessary  to  a  correct  understanding  of  the  Word. 

An  example  taken  from  the  writings  of  Paul  will  place 
this  subject  in  its  proper  light.  The  ninth  chapter  of 
1st  Corinthians  is  a  necessary  link  in  a  logical  and  com- 
pact chain  of  reasoning.  The  apostle  concludes  chapter 
eighth  with  this  idea  :  You  ought,  in  order  not  to  scan- 
dalize your  brethren,  to  renounce  sometimes  that  which 
pleases  you  and  which  is  lawful  to  you.  And  he  con- 
tinues in  the  ninth  chapter,  by  enumerating  the  many 
renouncements  of  his  rights — of  which  his  life  is  the 
proof — in  order  to  reach  the  conclusion  that  the  Co- 
rinthians are  bound  to  make  for  their  brethren  the  same 
sacrifice  that  he  had  made  for  them.  The  reasoning  is 
forcible  and  well  carried  out.  But  it  is  found  that  Paul, 
being  indignant  at  the  spirit  of  resistance  and  revolt 
manifested  by  the  Corinthians,  sets  himself  to  defend 
the  rights  of  which  he  speaks  and  which  he  has  vol- 
untarily resigned.  He  makes  an  attempt  to  shame  the 
Corinthians  and  to  justify  himself.  Hence  the  funda- 
mental reasoning  appears  to  be  covered  up  by  a  different 
discussion,  which  gives  to  the  passage  an  appearance  of 
emotion,  agitation,  and  complaint,  of  which  the  inter- 
preter must  find  the  key.  This  key  is  to  be  found  in  the 
careful  study  of  the  position  and  individuality  of  St.  Paul. 

2.  Instruction  and  Doctrine. — The  individuality  of  the 
sacred  author  exerts  an  influence  also  upon  the  doctrines 
he  expounds.  The  grand  theme  of  Paul  and  James  is 
faith,  and  for  this  discussion  they  were  chosen  and  men- 
tally qualified  by  the  Lord.  Peter  dwells  largely  upon 
the  grace  of  hope,  while  the  epistles  of  John,  the  loving 
and  loved  disciple,  are  filled  with  love  to  God  and  man. 
This  influence  of  individuality  upon  doctrine,  it  should 
be  observed,  is  clearer  and  more  positive  in  the  New 
Testament  than  in  the  Old. 


Special  Study  of  the  Sacred  Books.      203 

The  interpreter  should,  therefore,  regard  each  sacred 
author  from  the  doctrinal  point  of  view  which  is  pecul- 
iar to  that  author.  It  would  be  foreign  to  our  purpose 
to  stop  to  give  any  detailed  suggestions  in  regard  to 
these  peculiar  doctrinal  tendencies.  We  must  rest  with 
having  mentioned  their  importance,  and  having  warned 
the  interpreter  not  to  ignore  them. 


204  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


SECTION    FOURTH. 

MORAL  AND  INTELLECTUAL  CHARACTER  OF 
THE  BIBLE. 

§  1 14.   INTRODUCTION. 

A  REVELATION  from  God  must  participate  of  His 
wisdom  and  holiness.  The  book  which  contains  this 
revelation  must  be  expected  to  bear  the  same  impress. 
From  this  incontestable  principle  results  for  the  inter- 
preter a  practical  consequence,  at  once  a  rule  and  a 
means  of  interpretation.  The  attempt  should  be  made 
to  find  in  the  Bible  the  moral  and  intellectual  character 
which  ought  to  characterize  it.  It  becomes  our  duty  to 
study  successively  the  nature,  the  results,  and  the  impor- 
tance of  this  principle. 

A.  NATURE  OF  THE  PRINCIPLE. 
§115.   ITS   NATURE   EXPLAINED. 

It  has  been  established  in  Psychological  Hermeneutics 
that  the  interpreter  ought  to  be  convinced  of  the  sanc- 
tity and  divinity  of  the  Bible.  We  will  not  return  to 
the  proof  of  this  thesis,  but  will  deduce  this  consequence 
that  the  interpreter  may  not  admit  any  interpretation 
contrary  to  this  character  of  sanctity  and  divinity,  i.  e., 
to  the  moral  and  intellectual  character  that  the  very  fact 
of  inspiration  presupposes  in  the  Bible. 

It  may  be  objected,  perhaps,  that  the  Bible  being  it- 
self the  only  sure  rule  of  morality,  the  principal  deposi- 


Character  of  the  Bible.  205 

tary  of  the  truth,  and  the  source  from  which  sanctity 
has  flowed  upon  the  earth,  there  is  no  standard  by  which 
to  test  the  Bible.  Or  it  may  be  said  that  this  study  is 
simply  the  investigation  of  the  Analogy  of  Faith,  since 
the  general  teaching  of  the  Bible  constitutes  its  moral 
and  intellectual  character.  Or  it  may  further  be  said 
that  this  study  gives  the  interpreter  the  right  of  weigh- 
ing, not  only  the  teachings,  but  also  the  character  of  the 
Bible  by  his  reason,  and  thus  conduces  to  rationalism. 

In  reference  to  this  last  objection  we  will  speak  in  the 
sequel.  The  others  will  be  answered  by  the  mere  ex- 
planation of  the  nature  of  this  principle,  to  which  we 
now  proceed. 

In  the  investigation  of  the  moral  and  intellectual 
character  of  the  Bible  there  is  necessary  something  more 
than  the  Analogy  of  Faith,  more  even  than  the  Bible 
itself.  This  something  is  the  relation  between  this  Book 
and  the  primordial  nature  of  the  human  soul.  God  has 
so  constituted  man  that  he  has  in  himself  the  general 
principles  of  morality,  truth,  order,  and  good  sense. 
These  principles  are  constant  and  uniform  in  spite  of  the 
infirmities  of  the  heart  and  the  limits  of  the  mind.  Our 
mental  and  moral  constitution  is  such  that  we  can  not  re- 
gard as  coming  from  God  that  which  is  in  direct  opposi- 
tion to  these  innate  principles.  It  is  true  that  they,  in 
their  turn,  need  enlightenment,  co-ordination,  restora- 
tion, and  completion,  and  that  they  find  in  the  Bible  the 
light  and  truth  necessary  for  this  purpose. 

This  but  confirms  the  necessity  and  reality  of  the  har- 
mony pre-established  between  man  and  God,  between 
the  conscience  and  faith,  between  nature  and  grace,  be- 
tween reason  and  Revelation.  Whether  man  wills  it  or 
not,  his  reason  passes  judgment  upon  the  Bible;  and 
finding  it  conformed  to  the  inner  principles  which  he  has 
received  from  God,  he  accepts  and  reveres  it.     But  in 


206  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

addition  to  this  necessary  action,  there  is  a  reaction  of 
the  Bible  upon  the  conscience  and  the  reason,  purifying, 
regulating,  and  ennobling  them. 

This  action  constitutes  the  principle  of  interpretation 
upon  which  we  are  now  engaged,  while  the  reaction 
gives  rise  to  the  Analogy  of  Faith.  This  action  and 
this  reaction  are  of  equal  importance  to  the  interpreter, 
and  our  duty  is  to  insist  upon  both.  If  the  student 
takes  account  of  the  first  merely,  he  will  become  thor- 
oughly rationalistic  ;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  he  should  ex- 
alt the  second  exclusively,  he  would  annul  or  deny  con- 
science. He  would  even  deny  the  possibility  of  recog- 
nizing truth  when  God  presents  it  to  the  world.  We 
wish,  therefore,  to  conserve  both  the  divine  authority  of 
the  Bible  and,  within  its  proper  sphere,  the  reason  of 
man.  The  study  of  the  Moral  and  Intellectual  charac- 
ter of  the  Bible  may  therefore  be  admitted  into  the 
number  of  the  resources  of  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

B.  APPLICATION  OF  THE  PRINCIPLE. 
§Il6.    GENERAL  APPLICATION. 

There  are  five  elements  in  this  intellectual  and  moral 
character  of  the  Bible.  They  form  five  phases  of  the 
divine  work.  To  these  elements  the  student  should  pay 
especial  attention,  since  they  aid  him  to  analyze  and  in- 
terpret the  sacred  volume.  We  can  not  here  develop 
these  five  biblical  characteristics,  and  must  therefore  be 
content  simply  to  indicate  why  each  ought  to  be  found 
in  a  revelation  from  above. 

i.  The  grandeur  and  beauty  of  the  Conceptions. — It  is 
evident  that  these  should  be  expected  in  the  Bible,  since 
the  conceptions  are  given  to  us  as  divine.  The  interpre- 
ter ought  therefore  to  seek  for  divine  ideas.  This  state- 
ment includes  two  distinct  and  important  points :  (a),  He 


CJiaractcr  of  the  Bible.  207 

must  expect  things  worthy  of  God,  by  reason  of  their 
grandeur  and  beauty,  and  (b),  things  superior  to  the  con- 
ceptions of  man.  This  search,  if  well  understood  and 
followed,  separates  the  student  from  rationalism  instead 
of  leading  him  to  it.  The  reason  of  the  interpreter 
ought  to  demand  of  the  Bible  both  development  and 
light.  It  would  naturally  mistrust  a  revelation  which 
brings  to  it  nothing  new,  and  leaves  it  upon  the  earth  to 
struggle  always  in  the  midst  of  human  rudiments,. 

On  the  other  hand,  but  for  the  same  reason,  it  ought 
to  repel  everything  which  profanes  and  degrades  the 
holy  grandeur  of  God.  It  must  not  expect  to  find  any- 
thing that  links  God's  attributes  to  the  follies  of  earth 
and  the  passions  of  men  in  the  Book  to  which  it  comes 
for  pure  wisdom  from  above. 

2.  Harmony. — We  ought  to  expect  the  harmony  of 
the  Bible  with  itself,  since,  in  spite  of  the  variety  of 
forms,  all  its  portions  proceed  from  the  same  source. 
We  should  expect,  moreover,  the  harmony  of  the  God 
of  the  Bible  with  the  God  of  nature,  of  the  God  who 
has  revealed  Himself  to  the  heart  of  man  with  the  God 
who  has  made  the  heart  of  man.  This  harmony  is  one 
of  the  most  profound  and  undeniable  evidences  of  the 
divine  character  of  the  Bible.  To  contemplate  and  un- 
derstand this  harmony  is  one  of  the  greatest  sources  of 
satisfaction  to  the  devout  student. 

This  harmony  of  divine  teaching  is  of  great  importance 
to  man,  since  it  alone  can  give  him  unity  of  direction 
and  progress.  Man  is  a  strange  amalgamation  of  a  citi- 
zen of  heaven  and  a  dweller  on  the  earth — he  is  at  once 
a  moral  being  and  a  product  of  material  nature.  Uniting 
in  himself  these  diverse  qualities,  it  is  necessary  for  him 
to  find  a  constant  law,  capable  of  directing  him  in  a  sure 
and  plain  path  through  the  midst  of  these  concentric 
but  distinct  spheres. 


208  Biblical  Hermenentics. 

The  three  following  principles  result  from  the  har- 
mony between  the  Bible  and  nature,  but  they  deserve 
to  be  mentioned  separately  as  having  each  its  particular 
importance  and  its  special  foundation. 

3.  The  Progress  of  Man  toward  his  Destination. — 
Man  is  at  once  imperfect  and  perfectible,  mortal  and 
immortal.  The  Bible  which,  in  concert  with  virtue,  pro- 
claims him  such,  ought  to  give  him  a  constant  impulse 
toward  the  super-terrestrial  and  future  destination  im- 
plied by  this  remarkable  state  of  things.  Every  law, 
therefore,  condemning  man  to  remain  stationary,  every 
interpretation  that  would  confine  him  to  the  present  and 
attach  him  too  much  to  the  earth,  ought  to  be  suspected 
by  the  interpreter. 

4.  The  Sanctity  of  Morality. — This  results  from  the  es- 
sential character  of  sanctity  resident  in  God,  and  without 
which  neither  philosophy  nor  faith  could  admit  or  un- 
derstand His  nature. 

5.  The  Happiness  of  Man  by  Obedience  to  God. — This 
results  from  the  divine  goodness,  which  might  be  ex- 
pected to  purpose  the  happiness  of  His  creatures;  and 
from  the  divine  wisdom  which,  their  happiness  having 
been  purposed,  must  employ  the  best  means  of  accom- 
plishing it. 

The  interpreter  ought,  therefore,  to  mistrust  every  in- 
terpretation which  would  contradict,  or  be  out  of  har- 
mony with,  these  elements  in  the  moral  and  intellectual 
character  of  the  Bible.  He  should  seek  other  more 
probable  explanations ;  and  if  these  are  not  to  be  found 
he  should  suspend  his  judgment.  He  should  be  willing 
to  leave,  without  solution,  the  rare,  and  but  slightly  im- 
portant, enigmas  that  certain  passages  present  here  and 
there  in  the  Bible.  To  suspend  judgment  before  great 
difficulties  and  between  contrary,  yet  incontestable,  prin- 


Character  of  the  Bible.  209 

ciples,  is  the  continual  lot  of  man  upon  earth ;  and  the 
theologian  should  not  forget  that  the  same  is  often  his 
duty. 

§117.    MODIFIED   APPLICATION. 

While  maintaining  in  all  its  extent  the  general  princi- 
ple of  the  moral  and  intellectual  character  of  the  Bible, 
we  should  not  forget  that  this  principle  is  somewhat 
modified  by  the  combined  influence  of  the  individuality 
of  the  sacred  authors,  the  occasionality  of  their  writings, 
and  the  accommodation  necessarily  inherent  in  their 
teachings.  As  a  result  of  these  causes  we  will  find  one 
doctrine  brought  into  prominence  in  one  book,  and  its 
correlative  doctrine  mentioned  in  another,  which  thus 
completes  the  teaching  of  the  former. 

The  accommodation  of  the  divine  instruction  to  the  in- 
firmities of  men  will  detract  somewhat  from  the  intellect- 
ual character  of  the  Bible.  That  is  to  say,  we  will  observe 
that  the  whole  truth  was  not  delivered  to  the  Jews,  that 
certain  questionable  practices  were  permitted  in  the  infan- 
cy of  the  race.  We  will  discover  a  cloud  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment thrown  over  the  character  and  attributes  of  God. 
Here  and  there  may  be  discovered,  as  Job  says,  only  the 
"  parts  of  his  ways."  Still  these  results  will  not  detract 
in  the  least  degree  from  the  inspiration  of  the  Bible  ; 
although  the  student,  ignoring  these  accommodations 
and  expecting  to  find  perfect  morality  and  teaching  even 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Bible,  will  be  disappointed. 

§    Il8.     SPECIAL    APPLICATION    TO     THE     NEW     TESTA- 
MENT. 

In  the  teachings  of  the  Saviour  we  may  expect  to 
find  His  human  individuality  counteracted  by  His  divine 
nature.     The  influence  of  occasionality  will   be  slight  ; 


2 io  Biblical  Hcrmeneutics. 


for  although  the  Saviour  couches  His  teachings  in  forms 
which  are  attractive  to  uncultivated  minds,  He  never- 
theless speaks  for  the  entire  human  race.  But  the  influ- 
ence of  accommodation  may  always  be  observed  in  the 
forms  of  instruction  chosen  by  this  divine  Teacher.  The 
parables  and  the  allusions  to  contemporary  events  need 
be  but  mentioned  to  establish  this  idea.  Still  every 
utterance  of  the  Master  is  designed  to  help  mankind  on- 
ward and  upward  in  the  divine  life. 

Wherever  the  words,  conduct,  and  motives  of  Christ 
seem  to  be  obscured,  the  Christian  interpreter  will  apply 
this  principle  of  accommodation.  When  the  Saviour 
makes  a  change  in  His  plans  previously  arranged,  the 
interpreter  will  not  transform  this  action  into  local  and 
contracted  views,  or  into  an  evidence  of  His  mere  hu- 
manity, as  rationalists  have  done.  The  apparent  indif- 
ference of  the  Master  to  the  pleadings  of  the  Canaanit- 
ish  woman  will  not,  from  this  point  of  view,  be  regarded 
as  hardness  of  heart.  When  He  declared  (Matt,  xviii. 
17)  that  he  should  be  regarded  as  a  heathen  who  will 
hear  neither  his  brother,  nor  the  witnesses,  nor  the 
church,  it  can  not  be  supposed  that  this  is  an  authoriza- 
tion of  malevolence  toward  an  obdurate  brother,  or  even 
of  ceasing  to  wish  him  well. 

In  the  writings  of  the  apostles  individuality  and  occa- 
sionally are  everywhere  visible,  for  the  men  themselves 
were  not  transformed  into  gods,  nor  were  their  writings 
indited  without  special  reference  to  certain  men  and  cer- 
tain times.  But  there  is  here  no  intentional  and  human 
accommodation  underlying  their  teachings,  for  what  the 
writers  could  comprehend  will  be  plain  also  to  the  read- 
ers. They  spoke  the  truth  as  they  knew  it,  and  to  God 
alone  pertained  the  right  of  reserving  the  full  manifesta- 
tion of  wisdom  until  the  decreed  time.  The  men,  their 
times,  and  their  divine  enlightenment,  should  therefore 


CJiaracter  of  the  Bible.  2 1 1 

be  taken  account  of  when  studying  the  moral  and  intel- 
lectual character  of  the  apostolic  writings. 


§119.    SPECIAL  APPLICATION  TO   THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 

It  is  true  also  of  the  Old  Testament  that  the  individ- 
uality and  occasionally  are  human,  while  the  accommo- 
dation is  divine.  These  elements  are  very  prominent  in 
the  Old  Testament  writings,  hence  they  must  be  studied 
carefully  in  order  to  appreciate  the  moral  and  intellectual 
character  of  that  part  of  the  Bible.  The  whole  Mosaic 
legislation,  all  the  ways,  ceremonies,  and  rites  by  which 
the  Jewish  people  were  educated  by  the  Lord  and  pre- 
pared to  receive  His  Christ,  are  parts  of  a  divine  accom- 
modation, employed  by  the  Creator  for  the  salvation  of 
mankind.  It  results  from  this  that  the  intellectual  and 
moral  character  of  the  Old  Testament  should  not  be 
placed  on  the  same  level  with  that  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. The  student  ought  not  to  be  shocked  by  behold- 
ing moral  and  intellectual  imperfections,  which  are  not 
the  result  of  any  lack  of  inspiration  on  the  part  of  the 
sacred  writers,  but  have  been  permitted  by  God  in  order 
that  His  word  may  be  placed  at  the  very  door  of  those 
whom  He  desires  to  enlighten  and  save. 

Moreover,  the  several  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  in 
this  respect,  can  not  be  placed  upon  the  same  level.  In 
the  books  of  Moses  the  accommodation  is  universal  and 
systematized.  In  the  prophetical  books  the  occasion- 
ally is  made  more  important  and  becomes  the  prophet's 
mission  itself,  while  the  individuality  is  veiled  under  their 
literary  and  poetical  character.  The  poetical  writings 
are  so  diversely  affected  by  these  qualities  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  distinguish  the  most  prominent  one.  As  to 
the  historians  the  question  is  almost  equally  hard  to 
answer.     They  were  certainly  inspired,  and  their  mes- 


212  Biblical  Hermenetitics. 

sages  are  therefore  authoritative.  But  there  is  much 
obscurity  as  to  their  dates,  their  characters,  and  the 
sources  of  their  information.  In  this  state  of  things,  the 
interpreter  should  study  these  writings  with  a  special 
reference  to  the  intellectual  and  moral  character  of  the 
Old  Testament  in  particular,  and  of  Revelation  in  gen- 
eral. 

C.    APPRECIATION   OF   THE   PRINCIPLE. 
§  120.    OBJECTIONS. 

The  principles  which  we  have  now  expounded  are  ex- 
posed to  dangers,  and  may  become  disastrous  if  they  are 
not  carefully  limited.  But  if  employed  judiciously  they 
will  prove  productive  of  great  good  in  the  interpretation 
of  the  Bible. 

Just  here  three  objections  to  this  investigation  of  the 
moral  and  intellectual  character  of  the  Bible  may  be 
mentioned. 

It  is  said  : 

1.  That  this  principle  is  a  priori,  and  consequently 
takes  the  interpreter  out  of  his  normal  position  and  con- 
strains him  to  divest  himself  of  the  impartiality  neces- 
sary to  his  task. 

2.  That  this  principle  is  itself  doubtfully  and  danger- 
ously founded.  It  rests  upon  the  rights  of  conscience 
and  the  rights  of  reason,  and  it  is  said  nothing  in  the 
world  has  been  more  abused  than  these.  Man  is  dis- 
posed to  exaggerate  these  powers,  and  thus  great  injury 
may  be  done  to  the  sacred  volume.  In  fact,  we  are  told, 
this  principle  is  rationalism  pure  and  simple. 

3.  That  this  principle  has  the  extreme  inconvenience 
of  being  neither  uniform  nor  comparable.  Each  inter- 
preter has  a  peculiar  idea  of  moral  and  intellectual  ex- 
cellence.    Hence  there  will  be  as  many  different  inter 


Character  of  the  Bible.  2 1 3 

pretations  as  there  are  consciences,  which  can  not  be 
modified  or  harmonized  by  science  or  faith. 


§  121.   VALUE   OF  THESE   OBJECTIONS. 

We  certainly  will  not  be  accused  of  having  weakened 
the  force  of  these  objections  in  stating  them  ;  but  the 
answers  to  them  are  forthcoming.  These  answers  are 
founded  upon  the  facts  and  principles  laid  down  in  Psy- 
chological Hermeneutics  and  taken  for  granted  through- 
out this  work. 

First  Objection  answered.  Impartiality  should  not  be 
confounded  with  indifference.  The  indifferent  person  is 
not  impartial.  In  order  to  be  a  good  interpreter  there 
is  necessary,  at  least,  a  certain  degree  of  religious  con- 
viction and  faith.  In  other  words,  he  needs  a  conviction 
of  the  sanctity,  the  moral  and  intellectual  excellence  of 
the  Bible,  and  a  belief  in  the  divinity  of  Jesus  Christ. 
This  conviction  is  the  key  to  the  Bible,  and  without  it 
the  hidden  treasures  of  divine  truth  are  never  unlocked. 
Moreover,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  impossible  to  find  an 
impartial  critic,  since  every  man  occupied  with  the  scien- 
tific interpretation  of  the  sacred  book  has  a  previous 
conviction  for  or  against  it.  Schleiermacher  has  truth- 
fully said  :  "  If  the  interpreter  of  the  Bible  is  not  ani- 
mated by  real  affection  for  religion,  he  is  almost  neces- 
sarily influenced  by  sentiments  hostile  to  religion."  This 
results  from  the  nature  of  the  human  heart.  "  The  nat- 
ural man  discerneth  not  the  things  of  the  Spirit." 

Second  Objection  answered.  There  is  danger  of  ration- 
alism to  one  who  adopts  this  principle ;  but  there  is  no 
less  danger  in  neglecting  it.  There  is  danger  of  infidel- 
ity if  one  neglects  the  moral  and  intellectual  character 
of  the  Bible,  because  he  docs  not  believe  it ;  and  danger 
of  religious  fanaticism  if  one  neglects  it  while  believing 


214  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

it.  There  is  danger  upon  every  side  of  the  finite  man, 
placed  in  a  world  where  everything  is  to  him  bounded 
by  his  intellect,  which  is  a  source  of  imperfection  and 
error.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  point  out  the  danger, 
but  not  to  interdict  the  necessary  use  of  the  legitimate 
rights  and  innate  faculties  imposed  upon  man  by  his 
Maker.  You  must  not  desert  the  path  because  quick- 
sands are  upon  each  side. 

Third  Objection  answered.  The  same  answer  may  be 
given  to  this,  as  to  the  preceding,  objection.  We  admit 
that  there  is  an  inconvenience  in  the  application  of  this 
legitimate  and  obligatory  principle.  If  inconvenience  is 
a  sufficient  check,  it  should  also  be  placed  upon  every 
intellectual  and  physical  exercise  of  the  faculties  and 
forces  of  man.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  this  principle  must 
be  used,  and  is  used,  uniformly  by  all  Christian  interpre- 
ters. The  objection  is  not  true  that  there  will  be  as  many 
interpretations  as  consciences,  since  all  Christian  minds 
and  hearts  coincide  in  one  appreciation  of  this  principle. 
The  moral  and  intellectual  character  of  the  Bible  is  rec- 
ognized in  the  same  way,  although  with  a  difference  of 
degree,  by  all.  No  Christian  writer  can  be  found  who 
would  seriously  pretend  that  Jesus  sanctioned  a  course 
of  deception  and  unbelief  in  Luke  xvi.  8,  or  that  he 
really  wished  to  teach  that  He  would  drink  of  the  fruits 
of  the  vine  with  His  disciples  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven 
(Matt.  xxvi.  29). 

The  employment  of  this  principle  is,  therefore,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  universal  and  necessary.  Even  those  who 
interdict  it  practice  it,  and  it  is  impossible  for  them  to 
do  otherwise.  Moreover,  the  abuses  of  the  principle  do 
not  pertain  so  much  to  the  principle  itself  as  to  the  dis- 
positions that  some  carry  to  its  employment.  Rational- 
ists carry  to  the  principle  their  rationalism  much  oftener 
than  they  deduce  it  therefrom,  and  the  same  is  true  of 
all  extremists. 


Character'  of  the  Bible.  215 


§  122.    LIMITS   OF  THE   PRINCIPLE. 

The  danger  exists  ;  it  ought  to  be  braved  and  avoided. 
By  way  of  summation,  let  us  determine  the  limits  of  the 
principle,  and  seek  the  means  to  which  the  interpreter 
should  have  recourse.  Three  will  be  mentioned  which 
have  already  been  indicated  or  taken  for  granted. 

1.  The  conviction  of  the  weakness  and  fallibility  of 
man.  The  human  intelligence  is  so  constituted  that  it 
can  not  resist  placing  itself  supreme.  This  is  a  result  of 
its  very  nature.  It  is  also  a  consequence  of  its  activity, 
its  love  for  the  truth,  and  its  sensation  of  happiness 
when  that  truth  is  found.  Yet  this  intelligence,  far 
from  having  a  right  to  command,  is  constantly  mistaken 
and  often  loses  that  which  is  confided  to  its  keeping. 
These  are  the  facts.  Hence  the  interpreter  must  recog- 
nize this  human  fallibility  and  learn  to  mistrust  himself, 
to  proceed  with  caution  and  diligence,  and  to  esteem 
himself  in  fault  before  charging  the  Bible  with  inac- 
curacy. 

2.  The  divine  authority  of  revelation,  which  is  at  once 
the  foundation  and  consequence  of  the  divine  character 
of  the  Bible.  This  authority  imposes  strong  restrictions 
upon  the  exercise  of  the  human  reason  in  applying  this 
principle. 

3.  The  Analogy  of  Faith,  which  is  the  purest  and 
most  certain  expression  of  the  authority  of  the  Bible. 
Whenever  the  interpreter  is  in  perplexity,  whenever 
there  is  an  apparent  want  of  harmony  between  his 
reason  and  the  Bible,  the  Analogy  of  Faith  should  be 
consulted,  and  it  will  cause  the  right  decision  to  be 
made.  If  the  conscience  is  found  in  accord  with  the 
general  teachings  of  Scripture,  it  may  be  taken  as  a 
trustworthy  means  of  interpretation. 


216  Biblical  Hcrmcncutics. 


§  123.   CONSEQUENCES   OF  THE   PRINCIPLE. 

Two  important  consequences  may  be  deduced  from 
the  preceding  discussion  : 

1.  The  moral  and  intellectual  character  of  the  Bible 
must  be  taken  account  of  by  every  reader  of  that  book, 
whether  he  is  conscious  of  it  or  not.  He  has  the  right 
to  study  the  Bible  with  the  aid  of  his  individual  con- 
science. Since  consciences  are  different,  each  person 
will  derive  from  the  Bible  truth  which  is  substantially 
similar  to  the  whole  body  of  religion,  but  may  have  in- 
dividual peculiarities  of  detail. 

Therefore  the  diversity  of  religious  views  is  a  neces- 
sity of  the  very  nature  of  our  intelligence.  Toleration 
is  thus  an  act  of  justice,  a  recognition  of  the  rights  of 
others,  a  sentiment  well-pleasing  to  God,  who  gave  both 
the  Bible  and  the  mind  to  man. 

2.  We  have  affirmed  (§  116)  that  one  of  the  prominent 
and  necessary  characteristics  of  the  Bible  is  its  harmony 
with  the  laws,  the  plans,  and  the  benefits  of  the  God  of 
nature.  Now  the  method  we  have  expounded  supposes 
this  harmony,  shows  its  action,  and  causes  its  necessity 
to  be  felt.  The  moral  and  intellectual  character  of  the 
Bible  is  simply  a  corollary  of  this  harmony  and  causes 
its  importance,  beauty,  and  reality  to  be  known.  The 
knowledge  and  contemplation  of  this  harmony  ought  to 
be  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  Christian,  for  it  assumes 
his  faith,  purifies  his  mind,  and  is  singularly  adapted  to 
elevate  him  into  unison  with  God.  It  gives  him  the 
sweet  and  stimulating  conviction  that  the  Bible  was 
made  for  man,  and  man  for  God. 


PART    FI  FTH. 
DOCTRINAL   HERMENEUTICS. 

INTRODUCTION. 
§  124.   EXPOSITION   OF   THE   SUBJECT. 

We  have  indicated,  according  to  our  ability,  all  the 
means  within  the  reach  of  the  interpreter  to  elucidate 
the  sense  of  the  Bible,  and  to  determine  the  meaning  of 
its  authors.  But  something  more  is  necessary.  We 
must  endeavor,  if  possible,  to  discover,  in  the  thought 
of  the  human  authors,  the  thought  of  God. 

Here  the  question  of  inspiration  presents  itself.  This 
question  lies  at  the  very  foundation  of  Hermeneutics  ; 
and  without  the  discussion  of  it,  the  science  would  have 
neither  coherence,  logic,  nor  interest.  It  would  resemble 
an  edifice  built  upon  the  sand,  easily  overthrown  by  the 
flood,  or  the  rude  blast.  In  order  to  give  solidity  and 
completeness  to  the  science,  it  is  necessary  to  discuss 
the  question  of  inspiration,  at  least  in  relation  to  its  two 
principal  elements — its  reality  and  its  extent.  The  third 
element — the  mode  of  inspiration — which  is  more  diffi- 
cult and  less  fruitful  in  results,  we  will  touch  upon  only 
incidentally.  With  the  consideration  of  this  element, 
indeed,  the  interpreter  has  not  much  concern  ;  but  a 
proper  understanding  of  the  first  two  is  essential  to  the 
right  discharge  of  his  duty. 

We  have  already  indicated  our  conviction  as  to  the 
reality  of  inspiration.  We  will  now  furnish  the  proofs 
of  it,  expound  it  methodically,  and  develop  our  theory 
10  (217) 


2  1 8  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

of  it,  which  will  involve  the  discussion  of  the  questions 
of  plenary  inspiration  and  the  individuality  of  the  sacred 
writers,  together  with  other  questions  connected  with 
them.  This  part  of  our  treatise  will  necessarily  have 
many  points  of  contact  with  Historical  Hermeneutics. 

Doctrinal  Hermeneutics  and  Historical  Hermeneutics 
are  the  two  opposite  faces  of  the  same  body,  and  ought 
to  verify  and  illustrate  each  other.  Inspiration  is  the 
thought  of  God  communicated  to  man.  It  is  impossible, 
therefore,  that  the  interpreter  who  accepts  this  fact, 
should  not  ask :  "  What  becomes  of  the  thought  of 
man?"  This  question  Historical  Hermeneutics  endeav- 
ors to  answer  by  examining  directly  the  effects  of  the 
human  thought  upon  the  inspired  writer,  while  Doctrinal 
Hermeneutics  examines,  in  like  manner  and  directly,  the 
effects  produced  upon  the  same  writer  by  the  divine 
thought,  and  the  degree  to  which  this  latter  admits  the 
presence  and  the  action  of  the  human  thought.  These 
are  mysterious  questions,  and  they  may  seem  presumptu- 
ous. Nevertheless,  they  are  necessary  questions,  and 
when  properly  treated  contribute  to  faith  and  piety.  A 
treatise  on  Hermeneutics  can  not  omit  them ;  for  they 
form  an  essential  element  of  the  science.  If,  instead  of 
proceeding  a  priori,  it  limits  itself  to  the  study  of  the 
facts,  and  to  the  deduction  of  their  legitimate  results, 
there  is  nothing  in  the  task  either  rash  or  impossible. 

§  I25.   CRITICAL   QUESTION. 

Before  we  enter  upon  the  subject,  we  must  pause,  for 
a  moment,  to  consider  a  preliminary  question  foreign  to 
Hermeneutics,  and,  in  our  opinion,  to  the  theory  of  in- 
spiration, with  which  some,  now  more  than  ever,  persist 
in  connecting  it.  It  is  the  question  of  the  authority  of 
the  Canon.     It  is  the  general  opinion  that  the  reality  of 


Doctrinal  Hcrmeneutics.  219 

inspiration  supposes  the  divine  certainty  of  the  entire 
collection  of  books  in  the  sacred  volume,  and  that  there 
is  an  identity  between  the  two  following  formulas  :  "  The 
sacred  books  are  the  product  of  inspiration,"  and  "  The 
Canon  of  the  Old  Testament  and  that  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment are  as  such  and  altogether  the  product  of  inspira- 
tion." 

This  is  not  the  true  way  of  stating  the  question,  or 
rather  the  questions.     They  should  be  stated  thus : 

(1).  Were  the  authors  of  the  sacred  books  inspired  ? 

(2).  Is  each  of  these  books  actually  inspired  ? 

The  Canon  is  a  necessary  document,  and  its  existence 
is  of  great  value  in  resolving  the  second  question ;  but 
it  can  not  resolve  it  of  itself,  for  it  was  formed,  so  far  as 
we  know,  by  merely  human  agents,  and  it  rests  upon 
historical  proof.  The  human  agents,  however,  were 
guided  undoubtedly  by  Divine  Providence,  who  has 
visibly  blessed  their  work. 

When  we  examine  the  Canon  and  its  results,  we  can 
not  fail  to  recognize  this  providential  guidance  with 
confidence  and  faith.  The  work  of  forming  it,  however, 
was  only  providential  and  not  miraculous.  Second 
causes  acted  freely,  and  human  frailty  was  liable  to  err. 

In  this  state  of  things  the  rights  of  criticism  have  a 
fair  opportunity  for  their  exercise.  If  Criticism  is  worthy 
of  its  name,  if  it  combines  impartial  examination,  love 
of  truth,  a  profound  religious  and  Christian  sentiment 
with  a  philosophical  method  and  extensive  knowledge, 
it  will  render  important  service  to  faith  by  setting  in  a 
clear  light  everything  that  pertains  to  the  Canon.  The 
question  of  inspiration  can  only  be  freely  and  thoroughly 
treated  by  leaving  the  field  free  to  inquiries  of  this 
nature. 

As  to  ourselves,  we  have  arrived  personally,  by  exami- 
nation, at  the  belief  of  the  authenticity  and  inspiration 


220  Biblical  Henneneutics. 

of  all  the  books  which  the  Protestant  Churches  receive 
as  canonical.  The  Canon,  as  we  have  it,  has  come  down 
to  us  attested,  as  to  the  Old  Testament,  by  the  Jewish 
Church,  and  as  received  in  both  its  parts,  i.  e.,  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  by  the  early  Christian  Church, 
both  of  which  had  abundant  opportunities  of  proving 
the  authenticity  and  inspiration  of  its  respective  por- 
tions. This  is  not  the  place  for  the  evidence.  It  can 
be  found  in  special  works  on  the  Canon. 

§  126.   DIFFERENT    METHODS   OF  ANSWERING    THE 
QUESTION. 

The  hermeneutical  question  to  be  propounded  is  the 
following : 

Are  the  sacred  writings  really  inspired,  and  to  what 
extent  ? 

The  orthodox  generally  answer  the  question  thus : 

The  sacred  writings  are  inspired,  and  their  inspiration 
is  plenary.  According  to  the  advocates  of  this  theory, 
inspiration  being  plenary,  the  infallible  thought  of  the 
infallible  God  is  found  entire  in  the  infallible  words  of 
our  sacred  books.  This  answer  is  correct ;  but  it  can 
not  be  admitted  on  a  priori  grounds,  either  as  to  the 
nature  or  extent  of  inspiration.  The  facts  of  Scripture 
must  be  examined,  and  from  them  we  must  draw  our 
conclusion. 

Rationalists  deny  inspiration  as  contrary  to  the  ideas 
which  they  form  to  themselves  of  the  divine  wisdom. 
Finding,  as  they  suppose,  errors  of  detail  in  the  sacred 
writings,  they  affirm  that,  since  their  infallibility  is  not 
complete,  they  are  not  inspired. 

Many  theologians  adopt  an  intermediate  view.  They 
hold  that  the  Scriptures  contain  the  word  of  God,  but 
that  they  are  not  all  equally  inspired ;  that  portions  of 


Doctrinal  Hcrmeneutics.  221 

them  were  written  under  the  impulse  and  guidance  of 
that  gracious  influence  of  the  Spirit  common  to  all 
Christian  men. 

§  127.   THE   TRUE   METHOD. 

In  a  matter  so  difficult,  and,  in  a  great  measure,  closed 
to  our  investigations  ;  in  an  inquiry  in  which  it  is  im- 
possible to  attain  fully  to  principles  and  to  judge  with 
certainty  a  priori,  only  one  method  is  possible.  We 
must  investigate  all  the  facts,  and  then  co-ordinate  them 
to  the  best  of  our  ability. 

The  facts  are:  (i)the  testimony  of  the  sacred  writers 
as  to  their  own  inspiration  ;  (2)  the  traces  of  inspiration 
which  the  Bible  presents ;  and  (3)  the  effects  produced 
by  the  books  which  we  hold  to  be  inspired. 

In  considering  these  facts,  we  will  consider  in  the  first 
section  the  general  proofs  of  inspiration,  and  endeavor 
to  formulate  their  results. 

In  the  second  section  we  will  give  particular  attention 
to  matters  of  detail,  for  the  purpose  of  deducing  from 
them  the  nature  and  limits  of  inspiration. 

In  the  third  and  last  section  we  will  offer  some  re- 
flections upon  the  theory  thus  obtained. 


222  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


SECTION  FIRST. 

PROOFS  OF  INSPIRATION. 

§  128.    DEFINITION  AND   EXPOSITION. 

It  is  necessary,  at  the  outset,  to  define  certain  terms 
that  have  been  confounded  by  writers  on  this  subject. 
In  discussions  to  which  it  has  given  occasion,  this  con- 
fusion has  produced  misunderstandings  between  differ- 
ent parties,  or  has  led  to  defective  reasoning  by  them. 
The  terms  that  require  to  be  defined  and  distinguished 
from  each  other  are  Revelation  and  Inspiration. 

By  Revelation  we  understand  a  direct  communication 
from  God  to  man,  either  of  such  knowledge  as  man 
could  not  of  himself  attain  to  because  its  subject-matter 
transcends  human  sagacity  or  human  reason,  or  which 
(although  it  might  have  been  attained  in  the  ordinary 
way)  was  not,  in  point  of  fact,  from  whatever  cause, 
known  to  the  person  who  received  the  Revelation. 

By  Inspiration,  on  the  other  hand,  we  understand  that 
actuating  energy  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  whatever  degree 
or  manner  it  may  have  been  exercised,  guided  by  which 
the  human  agents  chosen  by  God  have  officially  pro- 
claimed His  will  by  word  of  mouth,  or  have  committed 
to  writing  the  several  portions  of  the  Bible. 

According  to  these  definitions,  Revelation  and  Inspi- 
ration differ  as  to  their  objects,  and  as  to  their  effects.  The 
object  of  the  former  is  the  communication  of  knowledge  ; 
that  of  the  latter  is  to  secure  infallibility  in  teaching. 
The  effect  of  Revelation  is  to  render  its  recipient  wiser  ; 


Proofs  of  Inspiration.  223 

that    of   Inspiration    is   to  preserve  him  from  error   in 
teaching.* 

We  are  now  ready  to  examine  the  proofs  of  the  in- 
spiration of  the  Scriptures. 

A.   PROOFS. 
§  129.   ARGUMENTS  A   PRIORI. 

Arguments  a  priori  can  not  resolve  the  question  ; 
but  they  have  their  use  and  ought  to  be  considered. 
Taken  along  with  facts,  they  furnish  strong  presumption, 
in  behalf  of  or  against  a  question,  and  thus  assist  us  in 
determining  it. 

We  may  safely  affirm  that  the  idea  of  revelation  leads 
to  that  of  authority ;  and  the  idea  of  authority  to  that 
of  inspiration. 

We  address  ourselves  to  Christian  readers,  who  ad- 
mit the  reality  of  a  revelation.  Now,  a  revelation  once 
admitted,  the  necessity  of  authority  seems  to  us  to  re- 
sult from  its  very  nature. 

(1).  When  we  speak  of  a  truth  communicated  by  God, 
of  a  rule  imposed  by  Him,  of  a  divine  precept,  the  notion 
of  authority  is  inseparable  from  the  notion  of  revelation 
in  the  cases  specified.  Suppose  a  revelation  without 
authority :  no  more  value,  or  certainty,  can  be  attached 
to  it  than  to  a  philosophy.     Indeed,  it  would  be  no  bet- 

*  Lee  on   Inspiration,  pp.  40,  41.     Hodge's  Theology,  Vol.   I.,  p. 

155. 

Prof.  Cellerier  distinguishes  between  Inspiration  and  Tkeopmusty, 
making  the  former  relative  to  the  sacred  writers,  and  the  latter  to  their 
writings.  By  Inspiration,  according  to  Prof.  C,  these  writers  acquired 
an  increased  knowledge  of  religious  truth  ;  by  Theopneusty  they  en- 
joyed a  special  and  supernatural  direction,  in  consequence  of  which 
their  writings  possess  an  absolute  infallibility  in  their  least  details. 
This,  however,  Prof.  C.  denies,  and  rejects  the  doctrine  of  Theop- 
neusty as  a  grave  error. 


224  Biblical  Hermenetitics. 

ter  than  a  conjectural  rationalism,  or  a  variable  and  fan- 
tastic mysticism.  Revelation,  on  this  supposition,  would 
be,  so  far  as  it  is  a  supernatural  communication,  utterly 
worthless. 

(2).  Divine  revelation  having  the  sole  end  that  we 
suppose  it  to  have,  viz,  the  happiness,  the  duty,  and 
development  of  man,  can  not  attain  this  object,  unless  it 
is  accepted  by  him.  This  acceptance  supposes  an  ac- 
knowledged authority,  established  by  evidence — an  au- 
thority which  can  touch  the  heart  and  conscience,  affect 
the  imagination,  and  appeal  to  the  intelligence  of  man- 
kind. Without  such  an  authority,  revelation  can  not 
accomplish  the  three  objects  which  it  must  propose  to 
itself,  because  they  correspond  to  three  great  wants  of 
men,  which  render  it  necessary.     These  objects  are: 

(a).  To  give  man  a  firm  and  well-grounded  faith. 
The  heart  and  intellect  of  man  have  need  of  some- 
thing else  than  philosophy.  Philosophy  interests,  en- 
lightens, develops,  amuses ;  but  it  does  not  convert. 
Subjective  feeling  is  doubtless  necessary  to  a  profound 
and  firm  belief;  but  authority  alone  can  give  it  sufficient 
strength,  definiteness,  and  certainty.  This  is  true  of 
meditative  and  reflective  minds ;  much  more  is  it  true 
of  ordinary  minds. 

(b).  To  strengthen  and  raise  feeble,  sinful,  irresolute,  and 
suffering  man.  If  man  has  need  of  light,  much  more 
has  he  need  of  strength.  This  philosophy  does  not 
give,  at  least,  to  the  masses. 

(c).  To  prescribe  a  rule  to  regulate  his  conduct  and 
govern  his  passions.  For  this  purpose,  authority  is  es- 
pecially necessary.  Morality,  the  influence  of  truth  up- 
on the  conduct  are  insufficient,  without  a  positive  and 
certain  authority,  which  says  to  man  :  "  Thou  shalt  do 
this,  thou  shalt  not  do  that."  The  proof  of  this  is  found 
in  the  universal  experience  of  mankind. 


Proofs  of  Inspiration.  225 


(3).  There  is  a  third  consideration,  which  seems  to  us 
to  attach  authority  to  revelation.  It  is  the  necessity  of 
its  efficacy,  not  only  upon  men  at  the  time  when  it  was 
given,  but  also  upon  men  in  the  future  ages  of  the 
world.  Revelation  being  a  supernatural  means,  can  not 
fail  of  its  object.  To  communicate  it  to  the  world,  with- 
out power  to  preserve  it,  would  be  to  deliver  it  to  the 
passions  and  interests  of  men.  Truth,  it  is  said,  once 
given  to  men,  will  make  its  way  alone  in  the  world. 
This  is  true,  if  it  is  preserved  in  a  durable  form,  as  in  a 
book,  or  in  nature,  and  is  not  fettered  or  smothered  by 
human  passions.  Physical  truth  is  interesting,  since 
nature  is  uniform,  and  furnishes  the  proofs  that  are  de- 
manded of  her ;  but  it  has  no  direct  bearing  upon  the 
moral  interests  of  mankind.  Philosophical  truth,  which 
rests  upon  two  immutable  bases,  the  human  mind  and 
logic,  struggles  in  the  dark  and  makes  little  progress. 
Moral  truth  is  continually  opposed  by  evil  passions  ;  and 
if  it  resists,  it  is  by  the  aid  of  the  light  and  authority  of 
the  Gospel.  If  we  deprive  the  Gospel  of  its  right  to  teach 
and  command,  if  we  do  not  expect  from  it  the  regeneration 
and  salvation  of  the  human  race,  it  would  be  an  impost- 
ure and  an  object  of  derision.  The  testimony  of  the 
heart  confirms  this  statement.  We  conclude,  then,  that 
he  who  admits  a  revelation  implicitly  admits  an  au- 
thority. 

Before  proceeding  further,  we  must,  for  the  purpose 
of  answering  some  objections,  indicate  our  views  more 
clearly  on  this  point. 

At  this  time,  more  than  at  any  other,  some  seek  to 
exclude,  in  the  name  of  the  autonomy  of  the  human 
mind,  the  idea  of  authority  from  Revelation.  They  con- 
tinually repeat :  authority  is  impossible,  and  the  mind  is 
so  constituted  as  to  reject  it.  In  the  last  analysis,  what- 
ever may  be  the  subject,  man  attaches  faith  only  to  that 


226  Biblical  Hcrmenetitics. 

which  satisfies  his  intelligence,  to  that  which  is  in  har- 
mony with  his  conscience,  and  to  what  responds  to  the 
wants  of  his  heart. 

The  human  mind,  it  is  true,  can  not  be  forced,  or  the 
conscience  obliterated.  This  we  have  fully  admitted, 
when  speaking  of  the  general  character  of  the  Bible  (§§ 
132-141).  But  the  question  here  is  by  no  means  similar. 
The  authority  that  we  find  in  the  Bible,  that  we  accept 
with  the  fullest  conviction,  and  which  we  wish  all  to  ac- 
cept, is  perfectly  consistent  with  reason  and  liberty.  It 
is  nothing  else  than  the  impression  produced  upon  an 
intelligent  and  moral  being  by  a  truth  whose  divine  ori- 
gin he  can  not  doubt.  In  this  there  is  no  violence  done 
to  his  faculties.  The  mind  weighs  that  authority ;  con- 
science assents  to  it ;  and  it  is  impossible  to  reject  it, 
unless  arguments  of  such  force  are  presented  as  to  prove 
it  a  mere  fiction.  It  is  a  striking  and  luminous  fact, 
which  fixes  the  attention,  enlightens  the  reason,  dispels 
doubts,  calms  the  passions,  touches  the  heart,  and  con- 
sequently engenders  faith. 

Suppose  that  an  individual  comes  and  preaches  to  us 
a  doctrine  which  professes  to  be  divine  ;  and  that  he  as- 
sures us  that  it  was  received,  eighteen  centuries  ago, 
from  the  mouth  of  a  carpenter  of  Nazareth,  a  remarka- 
ble man,  who  called  himself  the  Son  of  God.  This  doc- 
trine, moreover,  he  assures  us,  has  been  preserved  in 
obscure  books,  of  more  than  doubtful  authenticity,  and 
full  of  fabulous  legends  mixed  with  truth,  which  books 
he  urges  us  to  accept.  And  suppose  that  in  the  name 
of  the  same  man  and  of  the  same  books,  he  exhorts  us 
to  resist  the  passions  of  youth,  and  to  practice  temper- 
ance, justice,  and  piety. 

But  the  doctrine  appears  strange  to  us.  We  have  not 
experienced  the  need  of  it.  We  have  not  the  habit  of 
self-control.     The    doctrine  restrains  and  displeases  us. 


Proofs  of  Inspiration.  227 

The  result  is  easily  divined.  We  will  doubt  the  doc- 
trine :  we  will  rebel  against  its  precepts ;  and  we  will 
soon  cast  off  the  very  thought  of  such  a  religion  without 
authenticity  and  without  authority. 

Let  us  now  change  the  supposition.  A  new  teacher 
shows  us  that  the  Jewish  carpenter,  His  disciples,  and 
the  writers  of  the  New  Testament,  had  a  mission  and 
superior  knowledge  ;  that  their  teaching,  instead  of  being 
that  of  ordinary  men,  our  equals,  was  that  of  inspired 
men ;  and  that  their  books  were  written  under  the  in- 
fluence of  inspiration.  From  that  moment,  if  convinced, 
our  mental  position  is  entirely  changed.  We  become 
attentive.  We  are  inclined  to  believe.  We  examine 
the  books  closely  and  attentively.  This  faithful,  careful, 
repeated  examination  of  them  enables  us  to  understand 
them,  brings  us  to  love  them,  finally  to  admit  their  au- 
thority, and  to  yield  to  it,  provided  we  have  no  decisive 
reason  to  resist  it  any  longer.  God  has  spoken,  we  say 
to  ourselves,  and  our  reason,  our  conscience,  submit 
spontaneously  to  that  which  seems  to  be,  in  reality,  His 
language.  God  has  commanded  —  we  can  no  longer 
doubt  it — and  temptation  is  overcome.  Authority,  while 
revealing  itself  to  us,  has  brought  us  to  submission, 
changed,  saved  us. 

We  except,  however,  a  single  instance.  If  this  author- 
ity should  seem  to  sanction  things  unworthy  of  God, 
and  contrary  to  His  moral  character;  if,  after  the  most 
conscientious  examination,  this  incompatibility  between 
the  teaching  of  these  books  and  the  character  of  God, 
should  become  still  more  apparent,  reason  and  conscience 
can  not  submit.  Convinced  that  there  is  some  error  of 
fact,  some  misunderstanding  of  the  sense,  or  some  inex- 
plicable obscurity,  the  interpreter  will  persevere  and 
endeavor  to  interpret  such  things  in  harmony  with  the 
Divine  attributes ;  and  in  case  he  fails,  lie  will  hold  them 


228  Biblical  Hermencutics. 

in  abeyance  until  he  receives  more  light,  or  reject  them. 
In  this  manner,  the  human  mind  maintains  its  rights, 
and  authority  its  place  and  mission.  It  is  only  in  this 
way  that  authority  can  deal  with  a  free  and  intelligent 
being.  The  Church  of  Rome  does  not  view  it  in  this 
manner ;  but  the  Protestant  Churches  do. 

To  recapitulate :  the  efficacy  of  the  Bible  is  inseparably 
connected  with  its  authority.  Its  authority  is  as  insepa- 
rably connected  with  its  inspiration  ;  and  this  inspired, 
efficacious,  divine  authority  does  not  deprive  the  reason 
and  conscience  of  their  legitimate  autonomy. 

Now,  where  shall  we  seek  this  authority?  In  men? 
in  books?  or  elsewhere?  In  men?  No:  Facts  prove 
that  after  the  death  of  the  Apostles  and  of  their  com- 
panions in  labor,  no  man,  no  association,  no  succession 
of  men  received  this  authority. 

In  books?  Why  not?  This  is  a  natural  means,  and 
able  to  attain  the  object  with  less  inconvenience  than 
the  preceding. 

We  possess  books  which  profess  to  be  the  works  of 
inspired  authors,  and  which  bear  the  impress  of  inspira- 
tion. If  the  inspiration  of  their  authors  is  proved,  we 
will  find  in  them  the  authority  which  revelation  supposes, 
and  of  which  the  world  has  need ;  an  authority  suffi- 
ciently strong  and  decisive  in  everything  that  pertains 
to  the  object  of  revelation,  and  the  sphere  of  inspiration, 
viz,  the  salvation  of  man. 

Shall  we  look  for  authority  elsewhere  than  in  men,  or 
in  books  ?  Where  then  shall  we  find  it  ?  God  can, 
without  doubt,  employ  means  of  which  we  have  no  idea ; 
but  facts  prove  that  He  has  not  done  so. 

Within  these  limits,  arguments  a  priori  justify  us  in 
assuming,  with  a  high  degree  of  probability,  the  reality 
of  inspiration. 


Proofs  of  Inspiration.  229 


§  I30.  BIBLICAL  ARGUMENT,  OR  THE  ARGUMENT  DRAWN 
FROM   THE   TESTIMONY   OF  THE   SCRIPTURES. 

We  have  in  view,  in  this  section,  the  declarations  of 
the  writers  themselves,  and  the  manner  in  which  these 
declarations  were  admitted  and  accepted  by  their  con- 
temporaries and  their  disciples. 

Let  no  one  accuse  us  of  the  fallacy,  called  reasoning 
in  a  circle,  when  we  appeal  to  declarations  whose  author- 
ity we  are  required  to  prove.  We  are  not  now  speaking 
of  authority.  We  confine  ourselves  to  the  collection  of 
testimony  which  has  a  remarkable  character  of  sincerity. 
The  study  of  this  testimony  warrants  us  in  affirming 
four  facts  fully  attested. 

First  fact. — The  Old  Testament  generally  represents 
its  authors  as  men  who  professed  to  have  received  a 
mission  from  heaven  and  supernatural  knowledge,  for 
the  purpose  of  transmitting  to  men  a  revelation  from 
God.  No  one  can  deny  this  of  Moses  and  the  prophets. 
We  omit,  as  superfluous,  the  citations  and  the  proofs. 

Second  fact. — The  books  of  the  New  Testament  affirm 
that  Jesus  Christ  promised  the  guidance  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  to  His  Apostles;  and  that  the  Holy  Spirit  was,  in 
fact,  granted  in  an  extraordinary  manner  to  them  and  to 
their  companions  in  labor.  This  fact  of  a  positive  prom- 
ise given  by  Jesus  Christ,  a  promise  of  the  fulfillment  of 
which  they  render  a  unanimous  testimony,  appears  to  us 
to  be  of  great  weight  in  the  question. 

Some  have  made  objections  to  the  view  which  has 
just  been  taken  of  Christ's  promise.  They  have  said 
that  it  was  made  only  to  the  apostles,  and  that  it  can 
not  be  claimed  for  those  writers  of  the  New  Testament 
who  were  not  apostles.  Others  have  said  that  it  was 
made  to  all  Christians  as  well  as  to  the  apostles ;  and 


2  T,o  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

that  in  regard  to  it  both  Christians  and  apostles  are  on 
the  same  level.  It  has  been  said  also,  that  it  was  in- 
tended for  the  apostles  only  when  cited  before  tribunals, 
and  had  no  reference  to  them  as  writers  of  the  New 
Testament.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  these  objec- 
tions in  the  face  of  the  declarations  and  facts  which  we 
find  in  the  New  Testament  writings.  On  the  authority 
of  these  we  can  affirm  the  five  following  propositions, 
which  form  five  elementary  facts  : 

(a).  Jesus  Christ  promised  to  the  apostles  the  aid  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  See  Matt.  x.  19,  20;  Luke  xxi.  14,  15  ; 
John  xiv.  16,  17 — xvi.   13. 

(b).  He  promised  this  aid  as  an  extraordinary  and 
special  gift  intended  for  the  extraordinary  and  special 
times  of  the  primitive  Church.  See  the  passages  already 
cited  from  Matt,  and  Luke ;  also  John  xv.  26 — xvi.  4. 

(c).  This  promise  was  fulfilled  in  an  extraordinary  and 
special  manner  on  the  day  of  Pentecost ;  Acts  ii. 

(d).  The  extraordinary  and  special  gifts  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  especially  the  gift  of  prophecy,  i.  e.,  of  inspired 
teaching,  were  either  given  directly  to  the  fellow-labor- 
ers of  the  apostles,  or  transmitted  to  them  by  the  apos- 
tles themselves.  Examine  among  other  passages,  and 
independently  of  the  book  of  Acts,  which  of  itself  fur- 
nishes sufficient  proof ;  I  Corinth,  xii.,  especially  verse 
28.  Compare  Rom.  xii.  4-6;  Ephes.  iv.  11-12;  and  1 
Tim.  iv.  14.     See  also  Ephes.  iii.  5. 

(e).  The  Christians  of  all  ages,  since  the  time  of  the 
apostles,  who  have  enjoyed  the  aid  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
have  never  laid  claim,  when  in  the  possession  of  sound 
reason,  to  divine  inspiration,  and  to  an  authority  like 
that  of  the  apostles.  They  expect,  and  they  receive 
from  the  Holy  Spirit,  holy  affections  and  spiritual  power, 
but  not  revelations  and  the  gift  of  inspired  teaching. 

Third  fact. — The  majority  of  the  writers  of  the  New 


Proofs  of  Inspiration.  231 

Testament  declare  plainly  and  boldly  that  they  were  in- 
spired. It  is  sufficient  to  cite  Gal.  i.  II,  12,  and  Acts 
xv.  28.  No  one  can  ask  proof  more  positive  than  these 
two  passages. 

The  life,  the  teaching,  and  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul 
prove  abundantly  that  he  considered  himself  endowed 
with  the  gift  of  divine  inspiration,  and  that  he  vindicated 
his  claim  to  it  both  in  his  speeches  and  in  his  writings. 
See,  in  addition  to  Galatians,  which  we  have  mentioned, 
I  Corinth,  ii.  12,  13  ;  xiv.  37;  xv.  1-3  ;  Ephes.  iii.  3-5. 
It  is  important  to  remark  that  St.  Paul  was  not  one  of 
the  twelve  to  whom  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  promised  the 
Holy  Spirit,  nor  was  he  one  of  the  eleven  who  received 
Him  on  the  day  of  Pentecost. 

Fourth  fact. — The  claim  of  the  sacred  writers  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  to  a  real  inspiration  and  to  an 
authority  which  flows  from  it,  was  admitted  by  their 
contemporaries  and  successors,  and  since  the  formation 
of  the  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  general  admis- 
sion of  the  doctrine  of  its  inspiration  by  the  Jewish 
Church  is  incontestable.  Josephus  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment attest  this  fact  in  the  first  century  of  our  era,  and 
since  that  time  both  Jews  and  Christians  agree  in  hold- 
ing the  inspiration  of  the  Old  Testament.  As  to  the 
New  Testament,  it  is  no  less  incontestable  that  the  in- 
spiration of  its  authors,  during  their  lifetime,  was  never 
held  in  doubt.  No  one  will  deny  that  St.  Peter,  St. 
Paul,  and  St.  John  were  regarded  as  endowed  with  the 
special  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  No  one  will  deny  that 
these  gifts  were  considered  by  the  Church  as  evidence 
of  the  authority  of  these  men  and  as  a  guarantee  of  the 
infallibility  of  their  doctrines.  Take,  for  example,  what 
the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  says,  in  chap, 
ii.  4,  where  he  rests  the  authority  and  infallibility  of  the 
first  preachers  of  the  Gospel  upon  the  testimony  of  God 


232  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

himself,  declared  by  miracles  na\  itvev/xaTO?  dyiov 
j.iep  6   oiG. 

The  argument  from  testimony,  furnished  by  these  four 
facts,  has  great  force.  If  any  details  remain  doubtful  or 
obscure,  they  are  of  less  importance,  and  do  not  invali- 
date the  chief  points,  which  are  clear,  and  firmly  estab- 
lished. 

When  the  Holy  Scriptures  render  a  testimony  so  posi- 
tive to  the  reality  of  their  inspiration,  to  deny  it  is  not 
only  to  deprive  them  of  all  authority,  but  also  to  deny 
their  historical  value  and  refuse  them  credence.  In  this 
case,  what  else  would  Revelation  be  than  a  sublime  phi- 
losophy encompassed  with  doubts  and  blended  with  old 
legends  ?  How  could  the  human  mind  acknowledge  the 
Scriptures  as  true  ?  How  could  the  heart  accept  them 
as  a  rule  of  faith  and  a  law  for  the  conduct  ?  They 
would  have  no  interest  for  man  except  as  furnishing  a 
field  for  psychological  speculation,  mystical  reverie,  or 
the  nurture  of  superstition.  The  first  of  these  is  without 
practical  effect,  the  second  is  full  of  danger,  and  the  third 
is  opposed  to  the  progress  of  man  and  the  development 
of  the  Christian.  All  three  vitiate  the  truth  by  an  una- 
voidable mixture  of  error. 


§  131.    HISTORICAL  ARGUMENT. 

We  give  this  name  to  that  argument  which  is  derived 
from  the  history  of  the  ministry  of  the  sacred  writers. 
If  they  were  not  inspired,  there  were  certain  circum- 
stances attending  their  ministry  which  appear  to  us  in- 
explicable. This  argument  has  been  less  used  than 
others  in  recent  discussions  on  this  subject.  The  reason 
of  this  is  found,  doubtless,  in  the  fact  that  the  writings 
rather  than  their  authors  were  thought  to  claim  atten- 
tion.    We,  on  the  contrary,  who  insist  on  the  inspiration 


Proofs  of  Inspiration.  233 

of  the  writers,  and  deduce  from  it,  by  way  of  conse- 
quence, the  authority  of  their  writings,  attach  great  im- 
portance to  this  argument,  which  seems  of  a  nature  to 
impress  impartial  and  considerate  minds.  It  results  from 
the  four  following  elements  : 

1.  The  first  is  of  great  moral  force;  but  in  default  of 
facts,  we  can  apply  it  only  to  the  apostles.  It  is  the 
change  produced  upon  their  intelligence  from  and  after 
the  day  of  Pentecost.  It  is  the  extent  of  view  to  which 
these  men  were  raised,  who  until  that  time  were  incapa- 
ble of  understanding  their  Master  and  His  work.  It  is 
the  strong,  exalted,  loving,  sublime  faith  of  these  Jews 
and  fishermen.  Christ,  by  His  teaching  and  His  pres- 
ence, had  not,  before  His  death,  succeeded  in  complet- 
ing their  education  for  the  ministry  ;  it  was  after  that  event 
and  from  heaven  that  He  qualified  them  for  their  work. 

These  men,  whose  slowness  and  stupidity  sometimes 
grieved  the  Saviour,  and  astonish  us  when  reading  the 
Gospels,  became  almost,  in  an  instant,  the  authoritative 
teachers  of  the  human  race,  not  only  of  their  own  age, 
but  of  all  ages.  Destitute  of  literary  culture,  their  writ- 
ings satisfy  the  most  intimate  and  universal  wants  of  the 
human  soul.  Their  teaching  is  in  perfect  harmony  with 
the  mysterious  world  of  the  heart,  into  which  philosophy 
finds  it  difficult  to  enter.  Their  divine  philosophy  lays 
hold  upon  and  enchains  suffering,  sinful,  penitent  man  ; 
it  consoles,  elevates,  and  saves  him. 

Let  no  one  say,  as  some  have  said,  that  this  marvelous 
development  of  the  intelligence  of  the  apostles  was,  in 
this  case,  only  the  result  of  the  development  of  their 
religious  life,  and  that  this  was  the  development  of  their 
faith.  Such  an  assertion  only  puts  off  the  difficulty :  it 
does  not  solve  it.  Moreover,  it  is  not  true  that  progress 
in  religious  life,  however  great,  can  explain  so  strange 
and  so  complete  an  intellectual  transformation. 


234  Biblical  Hermcneutics. 

2.  The  second  element  of  the  argument  drawn  from 
the  history  of  the  sacred  writers,  is  the  union  of  enthu- 
siasm with  calm  judgment  and  good  sense,  the  complete 
absence  of  fanaticism  in  men  who  devoted  themselves 
to  suffering  and  death. 

Under  this  point  of  view,  it  is  interesting  to  study,  in 
the  Old  Testament,  the  history  of  the  prophets.  In  the 
New,  it  is  sufficient  to  mention  St.  Paul.  We  have  a 
knowledge  of  him  from  his  history,  and  we  have  a  still 
better  knowledge  of  him  from  his  writings.  Of  the  nu- 
merous contrasts  of  this  heroic  character,  there  is  none, 
on  the  one  hand,  so  prominent  and  so  remarkable  as  his 
continual  suffering  for  Christ  and  his  desire  to  depart 
and  be  with  Him ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  none 
so  prominent  as  his  calm,  judicious,  deliberate  mind,  his 
prudence  in  danger,  and  his  adroitness  in  avoiding  it. 
We  feel  constrained  to  accept  as  the  solution  of  this  that 
St.  Paul  was  under  the  special  teaching  and  guidance  of 
the  Holy  Spirit. 

3.  A  third  element  of  the  historical  proof  is  the  suc- 
cess of  the  ministry  of  the  divine  ambassadors.  All, 
from  Moses  to  St.  Paul,  accomplished  their  mission,  and 
performed  a  work,  which,  for  the  majority  of  them,  was 
disproportionate,  immense,  and  which,  taken  in  all  its 
extent,  constituted  a  revolution  unique  in  the  history  of 
the  world.  They  often  accomplished  their  work  in  cir- 
cumstances the  most  difficult  and  by  means  the  most 
improbable.  Sometimes,  men  the  most  obscure,  and, 
humanly  speaking,  the  least  capable,  were  God's  chosen 
instruments.  The  maintenance  of  Judaism,  until  the 
time  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  establishment  of  Christian- 
ity in  the  Roman  Empire,  in  the  midst  of  persecutions 
and  struggles,  are  facts  historically  inexplicable  without 
divine  intervention.  And  this  divine  intervention  to 
which  the  sacred  writers  appeal  was  a  gift  of  power  and 


Proofs  of  Inspiration.  235 


of  knowledge,  which  was  given  to  them  from  heaven. 
It  was,  along  with  their  power  to  work  miracles,  their 
inspiration. 

4.  The  last  element  has  some  relation  to  the  preced- 
ing. It  is  the  impossibility  of  admitting  the  general 
proofs  of  revelation,  without  concluding  from  them,  at 
the  same  time,  the  inspiration  of  the  men  who  were  its 
organs.  This  is  particularly  evident  in  regard  to  miracles, 
prophecies,  the  rapid  and  marvelous  establishment  of 
Christianity,  and  the  sublimity  of  revealed  truths.  The 
development  of  this  idea  is  superfluous. 

§  I32.   CRITICAL  ARGUMENT. 

We  thus  designate  the  proofs  derived  from  the  nature 
of  the  Sacred  Books.     We  will  indicate  four. 

1.  The  holy  grandeur,  the  profound  truth  of  the 
thoughts  and  precepts,  and  the  lofty  aims  of  these  books  ; 
also  their  eloquent,  vehement,  poetical,  and  pathetic 
sublimity.  These  things  furnish  a  strong  proof  of  in- 
spiration. They  furnish  the  only  proof  which  those  who 
deny  revelation,  but  wish  to  be  considered  believers,  are 
willing  to  accept.  But  one  can  not  hold  the  belief  of 
divine  revelation  without  holding  that  the  men  who 
transmitted  it  were  inspired.  Whence  could  they  have 
derived  it,  and  who  could  have  given  them  the  courage 
and  the  perseverance,  the  zeal  and  capacity  to  transmit 
it?  Several  of  them,  and  these  the  most  remarkable, 
were  men  without  learning. 

Those  of  them  whom  circumstances  seem  to  have 
prepared  for  their  work  were  not,  strictly  speaking,  ren- 
dered capable  by  their  preparation,  of  accomplishing 
their  work.  Moses  owed  much  to  his  Egyptian  educa- 
tion and  learning;  but  that  education  and  learning  can 
not  explain  his  marvelous  work  among  such  a  people  as 


J 


6  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


the  Israelites,  and  in  such  a  place  as  the  wilderness.  The 
profound  sagacity,  the  remarkable  unity,  the  more  than 
human  prudence,  and  the  touching  humanity  with  which 
his  legislation  is  impressed,  attest  its  divine  origin. 

Let  it  not  be  said,  in  regard  to  the  New  Testament, 
that  the  sacred  writers  recorded  only  the  teachings  re- 
ceived from  the  mouth  of  the  Saviour,  whose  compan- 
ions and  disciples  they  had  been.  This  is  not  true  of 
St.  Paul.  It  is  not  true  of  the  special,  detailed,  and  fre- 
quent applications  of  the  brief,  sententious,  and  general 
teachings  of  Christ,  which  the  New  Testament  writers 
develop  and  specialize.  They  do  not  write  as  mere 
reporters. 

On  the  hypothesis  that  these  writers  were  not  inspired, 
it  would  be  necessary  to  explain  how  such  men,  desti- 
tute of  learning  and  literary  skill,  became  all  at  once 
so  eminently  qualified  for  the  task  committed  to  them. 

Those  who  deny  inspiration,  deny  more  or  less  the 
authenticity  of  the  sacred  narratives  and  of  the  discourses 
contained  in  the  Gospels.  This  course  is  logical  and 
natural.  The  doctrine  of  inspiration  is  too  intimately 
connected  with  the  history  of  Jesus  Christ,  as  recorded 
by  the  evangelists,  to  maintain  the  one  and  deny  the 
other. 

2.  The  general  harmony  which  we  observe  between 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  which  obtains  in  each, 
and  from  which  results  the  unity  of  the  whole.  It  is 
difficult  to  procure  harmony  among  thinkers  and  writers ; 
indeed  it  is  impossible.  But  in  the  Bible,  we  perceive  a 
harmony,  which,  notwithstanding  individual  and  tempo- 
rary diversities,  continued  during  centuries  without  any 
special  institution  designed  to  maintain  it.  This  is  not 
a  proof  logically  or  mathematically  rigorous,  but  it  is  a 
phenomenon  without  a  parallel,  especially  on  so  vast 
a  scale. 


Proofs  of  Inspiration.  237 

3.  The  numerous  biblical  prophecies,  whose  fulfill- 
ment has  been,  or  is  still  visible  and  certain. 

This  proof  has  been  disputed  by  some  modern  schools. 
Of  course  the  rationalists,  who  deny  the  supernatural, 
refuse  to  admit  it.  But  the  proof  is  so  palpable  that  it 
can  not  be  evaded  except  by  the  violation  of  the  rules 
of  fair  criticism  and  of  the  acknowledged  principles  of 
historical  evidence.  It  is  unnecessary  to  refer  to  any 
examples,  as  the  fulfillment  of  the  prophecies  relating  to 
the  Jews,  to  Jerusalem,  to  Babylon,  to  Assyria,  and  to 
Christ  is  familiar  to  every  reader  of  the  Bible  and  of 
history. 

4.  I  mention,  finally,  not  as  a  decisive  proof,  but  as  a 
striking  and  interesting  fact,  the  struggle  which  seems 
sometimes  to  exist  in  the  sacred  writings,  between  the 
divine  superiority  of  the  thought's  and  the  relative  in- 
capacity of  the  language  and  of  the  writer.  We  find 
examples  of  this  in  certain  prophecies,  which  present  a 
striking  contrast  between  the  obscurity  of  details,  and 
the  positive  evidence  of  the  result.  Another  contrast  is 
that  which  sometimes  exists  between  the  coarseness  of 
the  figures  and  the  sublimity  of  the  thoughts.  Exam- 
ples of  this  are  frequent  in  the  prophecies  of  Ezekiel. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  extend  this  argument.  It  is  not 
decisive ;  yet  it  possesses  value,  especially  for  those  who 
are  sincerely  seeking  for  the  truth,  and  who  do  not  deny 
the  supernatural. 

§133.   ARGUMENT   FROM   FEELING,  OR   THE  TESTIMONY 
OF  THE   HOLY   SPIRIT. 

We  mention  this  argument  on  account  of  the  con- 
fusion of  ideas  connected  with  it.  As  a  proof  of  in- 
spiration it  has  little  weight.  It  seems  to  us  that  three 
very  different  things  have  been  included  in   it — things 


238  Biblical  Hcrmenezttics. 


which  must  be  carefully  distinguished,  and  which  either 
enter  into  proofs  already  given,  or  are  of  no  value  in 
proving  inspiration. 

1.  Ancient  theologians  employed  it,  not  to  prove  in- 
spiration, which  no  person  then  held  in  doubt,  but  to 
prove  the  canonicity  of  such  or  such  a  book  of  the  anti- 
legomena,  or  the  authenticity  of  such  or  such  a  doubt- 
ful passage.  They  affirmed  that  the  pious  Christian 
received,  in  reading  the  book  or  passage,  an  impression 
produced  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  warranted  to  him 
the  divine  origin  of  the  disputed  passage.  This  is  evi- 
dently an  individual,  hypothetical,  subjective  proof,  and 
really  of  no  value.  Applied  to  inspiration,  it  would  fur- 
nish an  instance  of  reasoning  in  a  circle  ;  for  to  prove  the 
inspiration  of  the  sacred  author,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  suppose  the  inspiration  of  the  reader. 

2.  Others  have  understood,  by  the  argument  drawn 
from  feeling,  the  belief  produced  in  the  heart  by  the 
Holy  Spirit,  of  such  or  such  a  doctrine.  But  this  proof 
brings  us  indirectly  to  the  books  from  which  the  doc- 
trine is  derived,  and  is  liable  to  the  objection  stated 
above.  It  can  furnish  no  proof  of  inspiration  properly 
so  called,  that  is,  in  the  theological  sense  of  the  term. 

3.  Others  understand,  by  the  argument  from  feeling, 
the  harmony  which  subsists  between  the  doctrines  of  the 
sacred  writer  and  the  necessities  of  the  heart.  It  is  the 
consolation,  the  light,  the  strength,  the  energy,  the  re- 
pentance, which,  by  the  aid  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  rise  in 
the  soul  moved  by  the  reading  of  these  doctrines,  which 
are  so  well  adapted  to  us  in  our  miserable  condition,  and 
which  respond  to  the  most  mysterious  and  most  pro- 
found needs  of  the  soul.  All  the  voices  of  the  soul  are 
answered  in  the  Scriptures.  This  proof  appears  to  us  to 
have  great  weight ;  but  it  falls  logically  under  the  first 
paragraph  of  the  Critical  Argument,  §  132. 


Proofs  of  Inspiration.  239 

These  are  the  general  proofs  of  inspiration,  which 
merit  the  serious  consideration  of  every  one,  and  which, 
taken  together,  are  sufficient  to  produce  conviction  in 
the  minds  of  all  who  admit  the  possibility  and  desirable- 
ness of  Revelation. 

B.  CONSEQUENCES. 

§  I34.   GENERAL  INDETERMINATION. 

The  proofs  which  we  have  just  considered,  sufficiently 
attest  inspiration ;  but  they  determine  neither  its  nature 
nor  its  degree.  To  determine  these  is  of  great  impor- 
tance in  Hermeneutics.  That  task  will  now  claim  our 
attention. 

Very  different  theories  of  inspiration  have  been  held 
and  are  still  held.  The  theory  of  verbal  inspiration ; 
the  mystical  theory  which  regards  the  sacred  writers  as 
passive,  wholly  possessed  of  the  Spirit,  and  uttering  His 
words  in  a  species  of  frenzy ;  the  theory  of  different  de- 
grees of  inspiration,  such  as  the  inspiration  of  sugges- 
tion, direction,  elevation,  and  superintendence  ;  the 
latitudinarian  and  rationalistic  theories ;  and  the  theory 
of  mere  gracious  influence,  have  all  had  their  advocates. 

The  proofs  which  we  have  just  considered  may  be 
equally  applied  to  several  of  the  theories  that  have  been 
mentioned.  Those  passages  which  speak  of  the  gifts  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  do  not  decide  the  question,  for  we  see 
them  applied  to  capacities  and  endowments  which  are 
very  far  removed  from  each  other,  as,  for  example,  the 
mechanical  skill  of  Bezaleel  (Exodus  xxxv.  31),  and  the 
divine  wisdom  of  our  Saviour  (John  iii.  34). 

The  promises  made  by  Jesus  Christ  to  the  apostles 
are  indeterminate  in  some  respects.  When  lie  said  to 
them :  "  When  he,  the  Spirit  of  truth,  is  come,  he  will 
guide  you  into  all  truth"  (John  xvi.  13),  it  is  evident 


240  Biblical  IJcrmcnaitics. 

that  many  truths  having  no  relation  to  Christian  doc- 
trine were  excepted.  We  must  also  except  the  time  of 
the  Parousia. 

We  can  not  determine  the  degree  of  inspiration  a 
priori,  by  the  necessity  of  authority,  or  by  our  views  of 
the  Divine  wisdom.  We  believe  that  God  intended, 
and  that  it  is  necessary  for  the  Church,  that  the  books 
which  form  the  depository  of  Divine  Truth,  should  pos- 
sess sufficient  authority  on  all  points  connected  with  their 
object.  But  differences  of  opinion  might  exist  as  to  the 
range  of  that  object.  Is  it  limited  to  religion  and 
morals  ?  or  does  it  extend  to  every  subject  of  which  the 
Scriptures  speak  ?  Were  the  sacred  writers  infallible  in 
every  particular  which  they  committed  to  writing? 

The  attempt  to  determine  the  degree  of  inspiration 
by  our  views  of  the  Divine  wisdom  is  equally  futile. 
That  wisdom  has  been  manifested  in  giving  a  revelation 
to  mankind.  The  nature  and  degree  of  that  revelation 
must  be  determined,  not  by  our  a  priori  conceptions  of 
what  that  wisdom  ought  to  do,  but  by  an  examination 
of  the  facts  in  detail,  of  what  it  has  done. 

§135.    CONSEQUENCES    FROM    THE    PROOFS    ADDUCED. 

We  have  just  said  that  an  examination  of  facts  in  de- 
tail is  the  only  method  of  ascertaining  the  nature  and 
degree  of  inspiration.  Before  we  enter  upon  that  ex- 
amination, let  us  inquire  whether  efforts  hitherto  made 
have  put  us  in  possession  of  any  fixed  and  positive  con- 
clusions, which  may  serve  as  a  point  of  departure  in  our 
investigation. 

Do  the  proofs  of  inspiration  which  we  have  given, 
leave  us  in  complete  indetermination  ?  or  are  we  author- 
ized to  deduce  from  them  any  general  propositions? 
Three  propositions  seem  to  us  to  result  from  the  proofs 


Proofs  of  Inspiration.  241 

exhibited,  inasmuch  as  they  are  logical  and  necessary 
corollaries  of  the  very  idea  of  inspiration.  These  propo- 
sitions are : 

1.  The  sacred  books  written  by  inspired  men,  ought, 
as  a  consequence,  to  possess  an  authority  sufficient  for 
everything  that  pertains  to  the  object  of  revelation. 
Without  this,  revelation  would  fail  of  its  object. 

2.  The  Holy  Scriptures,  written,  as  we  say,  by  inspired 
men,  and  intended  to  teach  men  the  way  of  salvation, 
their  duty  to  God  and  to  one  another,  can  not  contain 
errors  in  regard  to  these  matters. 

3.  The  different  parts  of  Holy  Scripture  can  not  have 
opposite  aims.  There  must  be  harmony  among  them  ; 
and  taken  together  they  must  constitute  a  regular  plan. 
The  Holy  Scriptures  present  a  series  of  revelations  more 
or  less  partial  and  occasional,  sometimes  local  and  tem- 
porary, but  always  mutually  dependent  and  forming  a 
complete  unity.  Consequently  we  may  expect  to  find 
throughout  a  single  and  a  continued  development.  Each 
of  the  sacred  books  must  enter  into  the  divine  plan,  and 
contribute  directly  or  indirectly  to  accomplish  the  final 
result.  In  short,  all  of  them  must  form  a  harmonious 
and  progressive  whole,  which  must  be  of  universal 
utility. 

(a).  Harmonious. — For,  notwithstanding  the  diversity 
of  occasional  circumstances  and  of  secondary  objects, 
there  can  be  no  contradiction  between  these  and  the 
general  plan  of  God  for  the  salvation  of  mankind. 

(b).  Progressive.  —  This  results  from  the  successive 
revelations  contained  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  from 
the  necessity  of  development. 

(c).  Universal  Utility. — Although  separate  portions  of 
Scripture  seem  to  have  been  intended  only  for  some 
men  and  for  certain  times,  yet  the  universal  utility  of 
1 1 


242  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

the  whole   results   from    its   harmony  and   progressive 
character. 

Compare  what  has  been  said  of  the  general  character 
of  the  Bible,  §  134. 

§  136.   QUESTIONS   TO   BE   DETERMINED. 

Many  questions  relative  to  the  mode  of  inspiration 
are  probably  insolvable.  But  this  is  not  the  case  with 
those  questions  that  pertain  to  its  nature  and  degree. 
There  are  three  questions  in  particular,  the  solution  of 
which  is  important  to  a  system  of  Hermeneutics.  They 
are  indeed  necessary  to  it,  and  connect  it  logically  with 
the  doctrine  of  inspiration.     These  questions  are  : 

1.  The  question  in  regard  to  the  inspired  person. 
Was  he  merely  a  passive  instrument  ?  or  did  he  retain 
his  individuality  ? 

2.  The  second  question  has  reference  to  the  inspired 
doctrines,  or  truths.  Did  inspiration  have,  sometimes, 
besides  its  general  object  relative  to  the  human  family, 
a  special  object  relative  to  times,  to  men,  and  to  circum- 
stances? In  other  words,  is  it  consistent  with  occasion- 
ally ? 

3.  Did  inspiration  extend  to  the  absolute  truth  of  the 
divine  revelations,  or  only  to  practical  and  intelligible 
truth?  Had  it  only  relation  to  the  conceptions  of  God, 
its  author,  or  had  it  also  relation  to  the  intelligence  and 
wants  of  man,  whom  He  wished  to  instruct  ?  Is  it  con- 
sistent with  accommodation  ? 

These  three  questions  we  will  endeavor  to  solve  by 
the  facts  of  Scripture. 


Nature  of  Inspiration.  243 


SECTION    SECOND. 

NATURE  OF  INSPIRATION. 

First  Question  :  Did  the  sacred  writers  preserve 
their  individuality? 

Chapter  First. — Facts, 
a.  anterior  facts. 

We  designate  as  such  the  facts  relative  to  the  origin 
of  revelation,  in  contradistinction  to  posterior  facts,  or 
those  relative  to  its  results. 

§137.    INSPIRATION    WAS    IMPARTED    SOMETIMES    SUC- 
CESSIVELY AND   BY   DEGREES. 

The  successive  or  gradual  character  of  inspiration,  in 
many  instances,  is  clearly  shown  in  the  New  Testament. 
As  to  the  Old  Testament,  the  facts  of  detail  are  not 
sufficiently  known  in  order  to  allow  a  conclusion.  But 
this  is  of  little  importance  for  the  solution  of  the  ques- 
tion, as  the  New  Testament  is  sufficient  for  our  purpose. 
In  this  we  find  the  facts  clear  and  positive  in  support  of 
our  thesis.  The  Holy  Spirit  and  His  gifts  were  given 
on  many  different  occasions  and  in  different  degrees  to 
the  same  individuals.  We  are  informed,  in  Matt.  x. 
5-8 ;  Mark  vi.  7  ;  Luke  ix.  1,  2,  that  Christ  sent  out  His 
apostles  with  miraculous  gifts  to  make  a  first  trial  of 
their  ministry.  In  Luke  x.  9-20,  we  find  mention  of  a 
similar  mission.  On  another  occasion  (John  xx.  22) 
Jesus  breathed  on  His  disciples  and  said,  "  Receive  ye 


244  Biblical  Hermeneutics* 

the  Holy  Ghost."  Notwithstanding  this  last  act,  the 
apostles  were  not  yet  fitted  to  accomplish  their  work ; 
the  great  and  miraculous  effusion  of  the  day  of  Pente- 
cost was  still  necessary  (Acts  ii.)  Finally,  even  after  the 
day  of  Pentecost,  the  apostles  understood  only  gradually 
the  calling  of  the  Gentiles  (Acts  x.  1-18,  44-48;  Acts 
xv.  1-29).  Moreover,  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  testi- 
fies throughout  to  the  judaizing  efforts  to  cause  the 
Galatians  to  renounce  the  teaching  of  St.  Paul,  and  to 
return  to  the  yoke  of  the  Law.  Without  doubt,  these 
efforts,  although  made  in  the  name  of  the  apostles  of 
Jerusalem,  were  neither  directed  nor  approved  by  them, 
so  far  as  we  can  learn  from  the  record,  yet  as  they  were 
made  by  men  who  professed  to  be  their  followers,  we 
may  conclude  that  St.  James  and  St.  Peter  neither 
taught  nor  understood  the  necessity  of  abrogating  the 
ceremonial  law.  If  this  was  the  case,  the  Holy  Spirit 
had  not  yet  entirely  enlightened  them. 

St.  Paul,  writing  to  the  Corinthians  (1  Cor.  xiv.  I,  12, 
13),  teaches  that  the  believer  ought  to  desire,  and  that  he 
can  by  prayer  obtain,  gifts  superior  to  those  which  he 
had  already  received. 

§  138.   THE   RELIGIOUS   KNOWLEDGE  OF  INSPIRED    MEN 
WAS   SOMETIMES   ACQUIRED   BY   HUMAN   MEANS. 

This  can  not  be  affirmed  of  all  the  sacred  writers,  nor 
even  of  the  greater  part  of  them.  We  know  positively 
the  contrary  in  reference  to  the  prophets  and  St.  Paul. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  we  know  that  it  was  so,  at  least 
with  the  sacred  historians.  Portions  of  Old  Testament 
history  are  extracts.  They  contain  genealogies  and 
official  acts  carefully  collected.  We  might  adduce  many 
examples  by  way  of  illustration  ;  but  it  is  unnecessary 
to  go  beyond  the  book  of  Genesis — a  book,  the  inspira- 


Nature  of  Inspiration.  245 

tion  of  which  is  attested  by  the  most  positive  proofs. 
Though  we  reject  the  documentary  and  fragmentary  hy- 
potheses, yet  we  can  not  fail  to  recognize  in  it  traces  of 
anterior  documents  collected  by  Moses,  and  used  by  him 
in  the  composition  of  the  book. 

In  the  New  Testament  both  St.  Matthew  and  St. 
Luke  doubtless  copied  their  genealogies  from  existing 
documents.  The  latter,  in  his  prologue,  bases  the  cre- 
dence due  to  his  history  upon  his  careful  research  (Luke 
i.  1-4).  The  apostle  John  appeals  to  his  personal  knowl- 
edge of  the  facts  (1  John  i.  1-3).  It  was  the  opinion  of 
the  ancient  Church  that  St.  Mark  obtained  the  facts  of 
his  narrative  from  St.  Peter.  In  these  instances  inspira- 
tion did  not  give  directly  the  knowledge  of  the  facts, 
but  left  the  sacred  writers  to  acquire  them  in  their  own 
manner. 

We  find  in  the  New  Testament  something  similar  in 
regard  to  the  acquisition  of  doctrinal  truth.  Before  the 
giving  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  His  apostles,  Christ  labored 
long  and  carefully  to  open  their  minds  and  prepare  them 
to  preach  His  doctrines  ;  and  even  after  the  Holy  Spirit 
was  given,  we  find  that  He  did  not  "  guide  them  into  all 
truth"  at  once;  but,  as  we  have  seen,  led  them  into  it 
gradually. 

B.  POSTERIOR  FACTS. 

Posterior  facts  are  those  which  are  relative  to  the 
effects  produced  by  inspiration  upon  the  inspired  men — 
those  which  show  the  inspiration  in  the  work,  and  which 
thus  reveal  to  us  its  nature. 

These  facts  may  be  divided  into  two  categories : 

(a).  Historical  facts  relative  principally  to  the  writer. 

{b).  Critical  facts  relative  uniformly  to  the  writings. 


246  Biblical  Herme?ieulics. 

(1).  HISTORICAL  FACTS. 
§  139.   ACTIVITY  AND   LIBERTY. 

Inspired  men  retained  their  mental  activity  and  liberty. 
They  were  not  passive  machines,  but  intelligent  volun- 
tary agents.  They  were  not  pens,  but  writers.  They 
were  not  amanuenses,  but  historians,  poets,  and  teachers 
of  doctrine. 

We  learn  from  St.  Peter  (1  Pet.  i.  10,  11),  that  the 
prophets,  whose  mental  condition  under  inspiration, 
seemed  sometimes  to  approximate  a  state  of  ecstasy, 
were  active  in  their  efforts  to  seize  and  express  the 
truths  which  they  were  inspired  to  utter.  Their  history 
presents  them  to  us  as  acting,  reflecting,  and  fulfilling 
a  ministry,  the  inspiration  of  which  did  not  interfere 
with  their  individual  agency.  We  observe  the  same 
thing  in  the  dogmatic  writers  What  is  there  more  free, 
more  active,  and  more  spontaneous  than  the  ministry  of 
St.  Paul  ?  What  more  carefully  and  ably  calculated  than 
his  plans  for  the  successive  conversion  of  the  East  and 
West?  When  we  see  the  Holy  Spirit  intervening  in 
these  plans,  it  is  not  to  inspire  them  directly ;  but  some- 
times to  suggest  the  idea  indirectly  (Acts  xvi.  9,  10), 
sometimes  to  hinder  the  purpose  (Acts  xvi.  6,  7). 

Sometimes  Providence  caused  the  apostle's  purposes 
to  succeed  by  ways  wholly  different  from  those  which 
were  projected  by  him.  Compare  his  long  efforts  to  ac- 
complish his  journey  to  Rome  (Rom.  i.  13),  and  the 
incident  which  decided  it  (Acts  xxv.  II,  12). 

The  spirit  of  insinuation,  the  mixture  of  sweetness 
and  firmness,  the  art  of  becoming  all  things  to  all  men 
(1  Cor.  ix.  22),  which  so  eminently  distinguished  the 
apostle  Paul,  and  which  were  so  important  to  his  success, 
were  evident  proofs  of  his  free  and  active  individuality. 


Nature  of  Inspiration.  247 

We  see  the  apostles  at  the  very  moment  in  which  they 
declare  themselves  inspired,  examining,  comparing,  dis- 
cussing, and  deciding  as  ordinary  men.  The  Council  of 
Jerusalem,  after  deliberation,  prefaced  their  decree  with 
this  solemn  formula :  "  It  seemed  good  to  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  to  us"  (Acts  xv.  28),  a  formula  worthy  of  at- 
tention, since  it  unites  in  the  same  affirmation  the  in- 
spiration of  the  apostles  with  their  individuality. 

We  have  seen,  §  138,  that  the  sacred  writers  did  not 
attain  all  at  once  to  a  knowledge  of  the  truths  which 
they  were  commissioned  to  transmit  to  us.  They  ac- 
quired a  knowledge  of  them  gradually.  Their  minds 
were  stimulated,  developed,  and  enlightened.  They 
were,  therefore,  neither  machines  nor  passive  beings,  but 
active  intelligences. 

§  140.  UNCERTAINTY  AND  ERRORS  OF  CONDUCT. 

What  we  have  said  in  the  preceding  sections,  proves 
temporary  uncertainty  and  doubt.  The  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  however,  do  not  leave  us  to  inference.  Take, 
for  example,  the  history  of  St.  Peter  and  Cornelius  (Acts 
x.  I— 1 1,  18).  We  refer  particularly  to  the  recital  which 
the  apostle  made  (xi.  5-17)  of  the  successive  facts,  and 
the  reasonings  by  which  his  conviction  in  regard  to  his 
course  of  duty  was  formed.  The  history  of  the  Coun- 
cil at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.)  furnishes  another  example. 

Inspired  men  were  also  liable  to  errors  of  conduct.  It 
is  sufficient  to  refer  to  the  rebuke  which  St.  Paul  ad- 
minstered  to  St.  Peter  at  Antioch  (Gal.  ii.  1 1).  St.  Paul's 
own  conduct  may  not  have  been  free  from  reprehension 
in  the  case  of  Mark  (Acts  xv.  36-39),  and  when  he  fol- 
lowed the  politic  advice  of  the  brethren  at  Jerusalem 
(Acts  xxi.  17-26).  This,  however,  has  no  bearing  upon 
the  question  of  their  inspiration. 


248  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


(2).  CRITICAL  FACTS. 
§  141.   ORDINARY   TONE   OF  THE   WRITINGS. 

Critical  facts  are  those  which  are  relative  to  the  nat- 
ure of  the  writings. 

The  first  critical  fact  that  strikes  us  is  the  ordinary 
tone  of  the  sacred  writers.  The  writings  of  both  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  exhibit  human  affections, 
emotions,  and  motives. 

1.  The  authors  sometimes  write  and  speak  as  feeble 
and  limited  beings.  David,  in  his  psalms,  even  in  his 
prophetical  and  Messianic  psalms,  cries  to  God  in  an- 
guish, and  implores  the  Divine  help  for  himself  as  a 
sufferer  and  a  sinner.  He  asks  for  mercy  and  grace, 
prays  for  protection  against  his  enemies,  reviews  past 
deliverances,  and  utters  thanksgiving  for  victory. 

We  find  similar  experience  in  other  Old  Testament 
writers  ;  and  in  the  New  Testament  the  strongly  marked 
individuality  of  the  apostle  Paul  will  readily  occur  to  the 
reader.  Who  so  easily  moved,  so  impassioned,  so  argu- 
mentative, and  so  logical  as  that  hero  of  the  Christian 
faith ! 

§  142.    INFLUENCE   OF   CIRCUMSTANCES. 

We  have  said  in  Historical  Hermeneutics  that  social, 
personal,  and  religious  circumstances  exert  an  influence 
upon  the  sacred  writers. 

We  add  here  only  three  brief  remarks  relative  to  the 
impressions  left  upon  the  sacred  writings  by  the  intel- 
lectual and  moral  character  of  the  authors. 

1.  The  four  principal  dogmatic  writers  of  the  New 
Testament — Peter,  John,  James,  and  Paul — present  four 
different  individualities  of  style,  tendencies,  and  methods. 


Nature  of  Inspiration.  249 

Nevertheless  one  can  observe  that  the  first  three  exhibit 
a  real  affinity  with  the  form  of  the  instructions  of  the 
Saviour,  with  whom  they  were  associated.  To  be  con- 
vinced of  this,  it  is  sufficient  to  recall  the  celestial  hope 
and  the  impassioned  transports  of  St.  Peter,  the  spiritual 
and  divine  character  of  the  words  of  St.  John,  and  the 
brief  and  sententious  severity  of  St.  James. 

In  St.  Paul  there  is  nothing  similar.  He,  as  well  as 
they,  grasped  the  doctrines  of  the  Master,  but  he  did  not 
learn  them  by  conversing  with  Him  upon  earth.  He 
was  taught  them  by  revelation  (Gal.  i.  12).  Moreover 
his  writings  exhibit  but  little  of  the  language  and  of  the 
sentences  of  Christ  ;  but  they  do  recall  the  methods  of 
the  school  in  which  he  had  been  educated. 

2.  Our  second  remark  applies  only  to  the  prophets  of 
the  Old  Testament.  The  proofs  given  of  the  individ- 
uality of  the  sacred  writers  were  less  peremptory  for  the 
prophets  than  for  the  others.  But  this  is  not  true  of  the 
influence  of  personal  circumstances.  How  many  differ- 
ences there  are  between  them,  and  differences  which  can 
be  attributed  only  to  the  special  intellectual  and  moral 
character  of  each.  We  appeal  to  all  those  who  have 
carefully  studied  Isaiah,  Hosea,  Joel,  and  Amos,  who 
were  all  contemporary.  A  still  better  illustration  is  fur- 
nished by  Isaiah  and  Ezekiel,  who  were  not  contempo- 
rary, but  both  of  high  social  position,  both  of  brilliant 
imagination,  full  of  pathos,  and  of  high  poetic  talent. 

3.  Our  third  remark  has  already  been  indicated  in 
§  130.  It  is  the  contrast  between  the  grandeur,  the  sub- 
limity of  the  thought,  and  sometimes  the  feebleness  and 
obscurity  of  the  expression.  This  contrast  furnished  us 
there  with  a  proof  "of  inspiration  ;  here  it  furnishes  us 
with  one  of  individuality. 


250  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


§  I43.   PROMINENT   DIVERSITIES    AMONG    THE    SACRED 
WRITERS. 

No  contradictions  exist  between  them,  and  the  differ- 
ences in  their  recitals  are  reconcilable  ;  yet  these  differ- 
ences in  the  order,  in  the  details,  and  in  the  color  of 
their  recitals,  demonstrate  the  individuality  of  the  au- 
thors. 

1.  These  differences  are  perhaps  best  illustrated  in  the 
Gospels.  In  these  our  Saviour  is  depicted  under  four 
different  phases.  There  is  no  moral  contradiction.  We 
see  only  the  different  rays  of  the  same  sun.  The  Chris- 
tian who  desires  to  be  warmed  by  its  light  has  only  to  pro- 
duce the  critical  prism  which  refracts  the  rays,  and  to 
labor  to  reunite  them  in  the  practice  of  life,  of  love,  and 
of  faith.  He  will  thus  be  certain  to  experience  its  power, 
and  will  be  enlightened  and  cheered  by  the  holy  and 
brilliant  light  which  results  from  their  combination. 

Each  of  these  four  evangelists  has  brought  into  more 
or  less  prominence  special  elements  of  the  character  of 
the  God-man.  Matthew  exhibits  His  disinterestedness 
and  His  severe  sanctity  ;  Mark  His  active  life  ;  Luke  rep- 
resents Him  as  the  Saviour  of  sinful  and  lost  men ;  and 
John,  as  the  Son  in  communion  with  the  Father,  calling 
men  to  eternal  life  by  similar  communion  with  Himself 
and  with  God. 

2.  We  see  also  diversities  in  dogmatic  tendencies.  We 
refer  to  the  formal,  though  not  real,  differences  between 
St.  Paul  and  St.  James.  Take,  for  example,  the  manner 
in  which  they  formulate  the  conditions  of  salvation.  St. 
Paul  collects  them  all  in  justification  by  faith,  and  thus 
gives  them  an  expression  remarkably  profound  and  phi- 
losophic. St.  James  places  them  in  the  works  which  ac- 
company faith,  and  which  bear  testimony  to  the  submis- 


Nature  of  Inspiration.  251 

sion  of  the  heart  to  the  royal  law  of  liberty.  This  ex- 
pression amounts  to  the  same  thing  in  practice.  It  has 
the  advantage  of  being  more  applicable,  the  inconven- 
ience of  being  less  simple  and  of  leading  to  mistakes. 


§  I44.   DECLARATIONS   OF  THE   SACRED   WRITERS. 

Not  only  do  inspired  men  and  the  sacred  writers  allow 
their  individuality  to  appear  everywhere ;  but  they  de- 
clare and  avow  it.  We  will  refer  to  four  positive  pas- 
sages, the  last  of  which  has  been  already  indicated  in 

§  I39>  PaSe  246. 

1.  The  first  passage  is  St.  John  iii.  31,  in  which  we 
have  the  humble  words  of  John  the  Baptist,  when 
speaking  of  himself  in  contrast  with  the  Saviour.  Nev- 
ertheless this  holy  forerunner,  who  speaks  in  such  hum- 
ble terms  of  himself,  was,  according  to  Christ  (Luke  vii. 
26),  more  than  a  prophet. 

2.  The  second  passage  is  1  Cor.  xiv.  32.  The  apostle 
says  the  spirits  of  the  prophets  are  subject  to  the 
prophets. 

3.  In  2  Cor.  xi.  6  St.  Paul  acknowledges  that  his 
speech  or  expression  is  not  up  to  the  level  of  the 
thought. 

4.  The  fourth  passage  is  1  Pet.  i.  10,  II.  This  pas- 
sage is  singularly  important  and  decisive. 

The  prophets  of  the  Old  Testament  endeavored  to 
elucidate  that  which  was  obscure.  They  labored  to  un- 
derstand, in  advance,  the  sufferings  of  Christ  and  the 
glory  which  should  follow.  They  labored  to  understand 
the  epoch  and  the  time  (.to/ok  xarz/Bor),  an  clement  which 
their  inspiration  did  not  make  known  to  them. 

The  individuality  of  the  sacred  writers  is,  we  think, 
abundantly  demonstrated. 


252  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


Chapter  Second. 

The  Relation  of  Inspiration  to  the  Individuality  of  the 
Sacred  Writers. 

§  I45.     TWO    ELEMENTS     AND    TWO     FACTORS    IN    THE 

BIBLE. 

It  is  evident  from  the  proofs  which  have  been  given 
of  the  inspiration  and  individuality  of  the  sacred  writers 
(§§  128-143)  that  the  Bible  contains  two  elements  —  a 
divine  and  a  human.  These  writers  expressly  assert 
that  the  Holy  Spirit  spake  by  them  (Matt.  x.  20;  Acts 
ii.  4;  2  Pet.  i.  21);  that  their  writings  had  the  charac- 
ter of  infallible  truth,  and  possessed  absolute  authority 
(John  x.  35  ;  Luke  xvi.  29,  31  ;  John  v.  39;  Matt.  v.  17, 
18) ;  that  as  prophets  and  apostles  they  spoke  and  acted 
for  God,  and  that  what  He  said  they  said  (Matt.  xxii.  43  ; 
comp.  Ps.  xcv.  7-1 1  and  Heb.  iii.  7-1 1  ;  comp.  Heb.  x. 
15-17  and  Jer.  xxxi.  31-34;  comp.  Acts  xxviii.  25-27 
and  Is.  vi.  9,  10). 

At  the  same  time  they  assert  as  expressly  that  they 
spoke  and  wrote  as  independent  writers.  Instead  of  the 
formula,  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord,"  we  read,  "  the  prophet 
Isaiah  saith,"  etc.  (John  xii.  38,  39,  41*;  Rom.  ix.  27,  29 ; 
x.  16,  20;  Matt.  ii.  17;  Gal.  v.  2  ;  Gal.  vi.  11  ;  John  vii. 
23  ;  Acts  ii.  25). 

The  individuality  of  the  sacred  writers  and  the  hu- 
man element  of  the  Bible  are  evident,  as  we  have  seen, 
from  the  human  features  impressed  upon  the  whole 
frame  and  style  of  the  Scriptures.  Each  author  has  his 
own  manner  of  expressing  his  thoughts.  When  we  read 
Isaiah,  we  say  this  is  not  the  style  of  Jeremiah  or  of 
Ezekiel ;  and  when  we  read  John,  we  say  this  is  not  the 
style  of  Paul. 


Nature  of  Inspiration.  253 

These  facts  prove  the  existence  of  two  factors,  whose 
mysterious  union  and  co-operation  produced  the  Holy- 
Scriptures,  in  the  form,  style,  and  manner  which  Infinite 
Wisdom  knew  to  be  most  suitable  to  the  mind  and  heart 
of  man.  These  two  factors  are  the  Holy  Spirit  and  the 
minds  of  the  sacred  writers.  The  question  arises : 
What  is  the  relation  of  these  two  factors  to  one  another  ? 
That  question  we  will  now  endeavor  to  elucidate. 

§  146.   INSPIRATION   DID  NOT  DESTROY  THE  CONSCIOUS 
SELF-CONTROL  OF   THE   SACRED   WRITERS. 

That  inspiration  did  not  destroy  the  conscious  self- 
control  of  the  sacred  writers  is  evident  from  the  fact 
that  they  preserved  their  individuality.  "  The  spirits  of 
the  prophets  are  subject  to  the  prophets  "  (1  Cor.  xiv. 
32). 

Inspired  men  were  not,  like  the  Pythoness  of  Delphi, 
thrown  into  a  state  of  ecstasy,  in  which  their  understand- 
ings were  held  in  abeyance,  while  they  gave  utterance 
to  words  of  which  they  knew  not  the  import.  They  did 
not  speak  in  spite  of  themselves,  as  was  the  case,  accord- 
ing to  the  belief  of  the  heathen,  with  the  utterers  of 
oracles.  The  Bible,  from  its  beginning  to  its  end,  bears 
evidence  of  their  calm,  constant  self-control,  and  dis- 
passionate judgment.  They  all  spoke  and  wrote  like  men 
in  the  full  possession  of  their  faculties,  and  just  as  we 
would  expect  men  of  their  rank  and  circumstances  to 
speak  and  write.  They  spoke  and  wrote,  it  is  true,  un- 
der divine  influence  and  guidance  ;  but  this  was  perfectly 
consistent  with  their  conscious  self-control  ;  and  their 
conscious  self-control  was  perfectly  consistent  with  su- 
pernatural direction.  In  the  affairs  of  this  life  we  often 
act  under  the  conscious  direction  of  others,  while  at  the 
same  time  we  feel  that  we  have  perfect  control  over 


254  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

our  own  faculties,  and  experience  no  difficulties  in  the 
case.  There  is,  therefore,  no  reason  why  any  difficulty 
should  be  raised  in  the  case  of  inspiration. 

§  147.  THE  TWO  ELEMENTS — THE  DIVINE  AND  THE 
HUMAN — ARE  SO  COMBINED  AS  TO  PRODUCE 
ONE   INDIVISIBLE   RESULT. 

The  conclusion  from  the  testimony  and  the  facts  of 
Scripture,  which  prove  a  two-fold  authorship,  is  that 
the  two  agencies — the  divine  and  the  human — employed 
in  its  composition,  are  so  combined  as  to  produce  one 
undivided  and  indivisible  result.  Notwithstanding  the 
exercise  of  human  agency  in  writing  the  Bible,  it  is  all 
alike  divine  ;  and  notwithstanding  the  divine  agency 
employed  in  its  composition,  it  is  all  alike  human.  The 
divine  and  human  elements  together  constitute  a  the- 
anthropic  book. 

§   148.      THE     UNION     OF    THESE    TWO     ELEMENTS 
INEXPLICABLE. 

How  can  the  Holy  Spirit  operate  upon  the  mind  of 
man,  without  superseding  the  use  of  his  faculties?  How 
is  the  freedom  of  man  compatible  with  the  operation  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  ?  These  are  questions  which  we  can 
not  fully  understand  and  explain.  But  it  does  not  follow 
from  the  impossibility  of  our  understanding  and  ex- 
plaining them,  that  they  are  contradictory  or  incom- 
patible. There  are  many  things  which  we  can  not  un- 
derstand, or  explain,  which  are  not  only  possible,  but 
actual  facts,  and  which,  upon  sufficient  evidence,  we  un- 
hesitatingly believe.  We  accept  the  evidence  in  spite 
of  the  difficulty  or  mystery  of  the  fact  to  be  believed  ;  and 
we  do  so,  on  the  reasonable  ground  that  difficulties, 
which  are  not  impossibilities,  and  which  may  derive  all 


Nature  of  Inspiration.  255 

their  plausibility  and  force  from  our  own  ignorance, 
amount  to  a  very  slight  presumption  against  the  truth 
of  facts  supported  by  abundant  and  reliable  testimony. 
Such,  we  believe,  is  the  testimony  in  the  present  in- 
stance. 

§  149.  ANALOGIES  ILLUSTRATING  THE  UNION  OF 
THE  DIVINE  AND  THE  HUMAN  ELEMENTS  IN 
SCRIPTURE. 

However  inexplicable  the  union  of  the  two  elements 
in  Scripture  may  be,  it  is  not  a  fact  that  stands  alone  in 
the  world. 

1.  It  has  an  analogue  in  the  person  of  Christ.     The 
analogy  between  the  Written  Word  and  the  Incarnate 
Word  is  sufficiently  indicated  in  Scripture  by  the  appli- 
cation of  the  same  term  to  both.     They  are  both  called 
the  Word   of  God,  or  simply  the  Word  (John  i.  I,  14 
]i  Tim.  iv.  2  ;    James  i.  22,  23  ;    1   Pet.  ii.  2 ;    Is.  xl.  8 
Luke  viii.  11  ;    Rom.  x.  17;    2  Cor.  iv.  2;    Eph.  vi.  17 
Heb.  iv.  12  ;  vi.  5  ;   1  Pet.  i.  23  ;  Rev.  xix.  13). 

The  limits  and  extent  of  this  analogy  lie  within  the 
confines  of  a  mystery  which  the  human  intellect  can  not 
unveil.  Yet  the  facts  are  sufficiently  numerous  to  show 
that  the  analogy  is  real  and  not  fanciful.  The  fullness 
of  the  Godhead  and  the  perfection  of  humanity  dwelt 
in  Jesus  Christ ;  at  the  same  time  His  human  nature 
was  subject  to  the  limitations  of  that  nature.  It  was 
subject  to  the  laws  of  humanity.  He  was  a  child  and 
grew  up  to  manhood.  "  He  increased  in  wisdom " 
(Luke  ii.  52).  He  suffered  hunger  and  thirst,  weariness 
of  body  and  sorrow  of  mind.  In  these  things  we  see 
the  weakness  of  humanity.  He  raised  the  dead  ;  He 
calmed  the  fury  of  the  waves  by  a  word  ;  He  rose  from 
the  grave  and  ascended  into  heaven.  In  these  acts  we 
see  divine  power.     In  the  person  of  Christ  we  perceive 


256  Biblical  Hermeneidics. 

the  co-existence  of  the  Infinite  and  the  finite,  and  their 
co-operation. 

In  a  similar  manner  we  observe  in  the  sacred  writers 
progress  in  knowledge,  human  limitation  ;  but  at  the 
same  time  they  furnish  evidence  of  supernatural  knowl- 
edge. The  phenomena  of  their  writings  can  not  be 
explained  except  on  the  hypothesis  of  a  divine  power 
co-operating  with  them,  or  working  in  them,  in  such  a 
way  as  to  produce  a  book  at  once  human  and  divine. 

2.  The  gracious  agency  of  the  Holy  Spirit  upon  the 
mind  and  heart  of  the  Christian  furnishes  another  an- 
alogue illustrative  of  the  twofold  agency  in  the  author- 
ship of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Regeneration,  conversion, 
and  sanctification  are  ascribed  to  the  Holy  Spirit.  He 
works  in  our  hearts  in  harmony  with  our  own  free  will. 
We  are  not  conscious  of  force  or  violence.  We  act 
freely,  so  freely  that  the  work  of  sanctification  is  some- 
times spoken  of  in  Scripture  as  our  own.  We  are  com- 
manded to  convert  ourselves,  to  be  holy,  to  make  to 
ourselves  a  new  heart,  while,  at  the  same  time,  we  are 
told  that  it  is  God  who  worketh  in  us  "  both  to  will  and 
to  do  of  his  good  pleasure  "  (Phil.  ii.  13). 

3.  The  providence  of  God,  both  in  nature  and  in  his- 
tory, furnishes  another  illustration  of  the  point  in  hand. 
God  is  present  in  all  nature,  "  upholding  all  things  by 
the  word  of  his  power "  (Heb.  i.  3).  He  has  estab- 
lished the  laws  of  nature  ;  and  yet,  in  many  instances, 
human  agency  is  necessary  to  carry  these  laws  into  effect 
for  the  accomplishment  of  special  ends.  Without  the 
appointments  of  God,  in  these  instances,  human  instru- 
mentality could  effect  nothing ;  and  without  human 
agency  the  Divine  appointments,  or  laws  of  nature, 
would  be  equally  inefficient.  The  two  co-operate  with- 
out any  interference  of  the  one  with  the  other.  The 
divine  and  the  human  agencies  meet  and  conspire  to 
the  same  end. 


Nahire  of  Inspiration.  257 


We  observe  the  same  thing  in  history.  Take  the  case 
of  Joseph,  who  was  sold  by  his  brethren  and  carried  into 
Egypt.  They  acted  freely  ;  yet  Joseph  told  them  after- 
ward that  while  they  "  thought  evil  against "  him,  yet 
"  God  meant  it  unto  good,  to  bring  to  pass  to  save 
much  people  alive."  In  this  instance  the  purpose  of 
God  was  unknown  to  Joseph's  brethren,  and  their  pur- 
pose was  antagonistic  to  God's.  They  were  uncon- 
sciously controlled  by  God,  and  yet  acted  with  perfect 
freedom.  They  acted  in  accordance  with  human  mo- 
tives. If  the  human  and  divine  can  co-operate,  in  such 
cases,  without  the  suspension  of  man's  free  agency,  why 
can  they  not  co-operate  when  these  two  agencies  are 
in  accord,  as  was  the  case  with  the  sacred  writers,  who 
wrote  under  the  conscious  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit  ? 

4.  Other  analogues  are  furnished  by  the  co-operation 
of  the  minds  of  teacher  and  pupil,  in  the  solution  of 
problems,  in  which  the  former  directs  the  latter ;  and  by 
the  controlling  influence  which  a  superior  mind  has  over 
another,  that  feels  this  controlling  influence,  yet  acts 
with  perfect  freedom.  In  the  former  instance,  the 
teacher  may  be  said  to  solve  the  problem,  and  the  pupil 
may  be  said  to  solve  it.  In  the  latter,  the  controlling 
mind  may  be  said  to  accomplish  a  certain  act ;  and  the 
person  acting  under  his  control  may  be  said  to  ac- 
complish the  same  act.* 

The  foregoing  analogies  do  not  explain  the  mode  of 
co-operation  of  the  divine  and  the  human  agencies  in 
the  production  of  the  Holy  Scriptures ;  but  they  show 
that  inspiration  does  not  interfere  with  the  freedom  of 
the  sacred  writer.  The  Holy  Spirit  controls  and  directs, 
while  the  human  agent  retains  his  freedom  and  individ- 
uality. 


*  See  "  Inspiration  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,"  by  Charles  Elliott,  D.D. 
Edinburgh  :  T.  &  T.  Claik.     1877.     Part  III.,  chap.  iv. 


258  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

SECOND  QUESTION  :  Did  inspiration  exclude  occasion- 
ally from  the  sacred  writings  ? 

Chapter  First. — Facts. 

§150.  general  facts. 

Facts  prove  that  the  Scriptures  are  not  exempt  from 
an  occasional  character,  as  we  have  intimated  in  §  136. 
We  will  premise  some  general  considerations : 

1.  We  pursue  here  the  same  line  of  argument  as  in 
the  case  of  the  individuality  of  the  sacred  writers 
(§§  I37-I44)-  In  Historical  Hermeneutics,  when  illustrat- 
ing the  influence  of  the  times,  of  the  occasion,  and  of 
the  persons  addressed  upon  the  sacred  writings,  we  sup- 
ported our  position  in  respect  to  that  influence  by  nu- 
merous facts  (§§  87-89).  These  facts  fall  in  so  well  with 
the  theory  of  occasionality,  and  furnish  so  high  a  degree 
of  evidence,  as  to  prove  it  at  least  indirectly.  By  oc- 
casionality, we  mean  the  influence  which  the  occasion, 
the  times,  and  the  persons  addressed  exercised  upon  the 
sacred  writings  ;  and  this  influence  was  perfectly  compat- 
ible with  their  inspiration. 

2.  The  Bible  was  given  to  the  world  under  a  form 
which  was  neither  codified  nor  complete  at  once,  but 
"  at  sundry  times  and  in  divers  manners,"  and  conse- 
quently occasional.  There  must,  indeed,  have  been  a 
special  motive  for  the  successive  appearance  of  each  of 
the  sacred  books,  which  do  not  form  otherwise  a  neces- 
sary series-,  and  do  not  enter  into  an  exterior  and  appar- 
ent plan.  Each  book,  therefore,  must  have  had  its  special 
object,  its  peculiar  relation  to  its  own  time,  an  occasion 
in  the  circumstances  of  the  persons  addressed.  This  is 
what  has  been  defined  to  be  the  occasionality  of  a  book. 
Without  a  recognition  of  this  the  form  of  the  Bible 
would  be  inexplicable. 


Nature  of  Inspiration.  259 


3.  Prof.  Cellerier  is  of  the  opinion  that  some  of  the 
sacred  books,  at  least  some  of  the  writings  of  inspired 
authors,  were  of  such  an  occasional  character  that  they 
have  not  been  preserved ;  and  adduces  as  a  proof,  1  Cor. 
v.  9.  On  this  passage,  Calvin  remarks  in  his  commen- 
tary :  "  The  epistle  of  which  he  speaks  is  not  at  this  day 
extant.  Nor  is  there  any  doubt  that  many  others  are 
lost.  It  is  enough,  however,  that  those  have  been  pre- 
served to  us  which  the  Lord  foresaw  would  suffice." 
"  This  conclusion  is  perfectly  consistent,"  says  Words- 
worth, "  with  the  position  that  '  No  Canonical  book  of 
Holy  Scripture  has  been  lost'  For  what  is  meant  by  the 
word  '  Canonical'  ?  That  which  forms  a  part  of  those 
writings  which  constitute  the  Kavaiv  or  Rule  of  Faith 
of  the  Church,  and  has  been  received  as  such  by  the  Uni- 
versal Church,  which  is  the  body  of  Christ,  and  to  which 
He  promised  His  presence  and  that  of  the  Holy  Ghost." 
In  respect  to  the  whole  matter,  it  may  be  safe  to  remark 
that  we  have  no  evidence  that  the  collectors  of  the 
Canon  were  infallible ;  at  the  same  time  we  have  no 
evidence  that  any  inspired  writing  intended  for  the 
whole  body  of  the  Church,  at  any  period  of  its  history, 
has  been  lost.  Writings  by  inspired  men  have  doubt- 
less been  lost ;  but  they  were  probably  of  a  local  and 
temporary  character. 

§  151.    SPECIAL   FACTS. 

Several  books  of  the  Bible,  and  these  not  the  least 
important,  were  written  under  a  form  essentially  oc- 
casional, and  stripped  of  their  occasionally  they  would 
become  unintelligible.  What  is  a  biblical  epistle  but  a 
letter  of  instruction,  addressed  at  a  certain  time  to  cer- 
tain men,  placed  in  certain  circumstances,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  producing  upon  them  a  certain  effect  ?     After 


260  Biblical  Hermeneiitics. 

having  read  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  and  the  Epistles 
to  the  Corinthians,  can  one  have  any  doubt  of  their  oc- 
casionality?  What  we  say  of  Paul's  Epistles  may  be 
said  of  many  other  books  of  the  Bible. 

2.  Several  books  carry  the  impress  of  occasionally  in 
the  teaching  which  they  contain.  Take,  for  example, 
the  Pentateuch  and  the  two  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians, 
already  mentioned.  These  writings,  as  well  as  many 
others,  were  addressed  primarily  to  men  of  the  times 
when  they  were  written.  While  containing  instruction 
adapted  to  men  of  all  times  and  in  every  condition  of 
life,  they  had  also  a  special,  urgent,  evident,  and  tempo- 
rary object.  This  special  object  occupies  the  foreground  ; 
in  the  background  we  discover  the  general  object,  which 
survives  through  all  time. 

Peter  said  to  Jesus  Christ  (Luke  xii.  41),  "  Lord, 
speakest  thou  this  parable  unto  us,  or  even  to  all?"  In- 
deed, the  habitual  teaching  of  Jesus  Christ  bears  the 
impress  of  occasionally,  without  which  it  would  have 
had  very  little  effect  upon  His  contemporaries. 

3.  All  the  books  which  have  nothing  decidedly  oc- 
casional in  their  form,  or  in  their  teaching,  present  the 
same  union  of  a  general  and  universal  object  with  an 
object,  or  at  least  with  the  details,  of  a  contemporary 
nature,  and  consequently  transient.  This  is  an  evident 
proof  of  occasionally.  Even  in  books  the  most  in- 
structive and  the  most  important,  even  in  the  richest 
portions  of  the  Word  of  God,  there  is  a  contrast  be- 
tween the  universal,  eternal,  and  divine  doctrine,  and  the 
occasional  and  temporary  character  of  the  reasonings, 
deductions,  figures,  and  clothing  of  the  ideas.  They  are 
like  ancient  letters  addressed  to  others  ;  but  letters  from 
which  we  can  derive  great  profit  to  ourselves,  and  which 
we  may,  by  dropping  the  address  and  salutations,  con- 
sider as  addressed  to  us.     They  are  letters  full  of  truths 


Nature  of  Inspiration.  261 

and  counsels  of  the  highest  utility,  and  intended  from 
the  first  by  their  writers  to  be  preserved  for  us  and  for 
future  generations. 


Chapter  Second. 

ELUCIDATIONS  AND   CONSEQUENCES. 

§152.   INTENTION   AND    METHOD   OF   REVELATION. 

Before  we  deduce  the  hermeneutical  consequences 
from  the  fact  of  occasionality,  considered  in  the  two 
previous  sections,  we  must  notice  the  light  which  it 
sheds  upon  the  general  method  of  revelation,  and  con- 
sequently upon  the  subject  of  Biblical  Apologetics. 

1.  General  Method  of  Revelation. — All  the  parts  of  the 
Bible,  we  have  said,  present  the  union  of  an  occasional 
with  a  universal  object,  but  in  very  different  proportions. 
The  Old  Testament  is  much  more  occasional  than  the 
New.  It  is  not  only  so  in  its  details,  but  also  when 
taken  as  a  whole.  The  New  Testament  is  so  only  in  its 
details.  The  whole  is  designed  for  us  fully  as  much  as, 
or  even  more  than,  for  the  contemporaries  of  its  writers  ; 
but  its  details  and  its  forms  were  particularly  adapted 
to  them. 

In  the  entire  Bible,  that  which  concerns  us  is  its  full 
revelation  of  salvation.  It  contains  the  history,  and 
describes  the  nature  and  the  conditions  of  that  salva- 
tion ;  the  origin  and  destination  of  man  ;  the  counsels 
of  God. 

Such  are  the  form  and  the  method  of  the  Bible. 

As  a  result  of  this,  the  Christian  is  constrained  to 
activity  of  mind.  It  is  only  by  a  sustained  intellectual 
activity  that  he  can  receive  and  apply  the  revelation 
contained  in  the  Bible  to  himself.     This  activity,  how- 


262  Biblical  Hermenetitics. 

ever,  will  be  of  a  different  nature  in  the  common  be- 
liever and  in  the  theologian  who  is  called  to  instruct 
others.  The  ordinary  Christian  studies  the  Bible  for 
himself,  not  for  others.  Concerned  chiefly  about  his 
own  salvation,  he  will  seek  for  those  things  which  will 
influence  his  thoughts,  his  affections,  and  his  will,  and 
furnish  nourishment  for  his  faith.  If  he  is  wise,  he  will 
pass  over  things  which  are  obscure  to  his  mind,  yet  but 
partially  enlightened ;  that  is,  over  things  which  were 
the  most  occasional.  He  will  dwell  upon  that  which  he 
comprehends,  upon  what  he  feels,  upon  what  furnishes 
him  with  edification,  peace,  and  light,  namely,  upon  what 
was  particularly  designed  for  him.  He  is  active,  yea, 
very  active  in  his  work,  for  he  is  attentive.  He  neither 
analyzes  nor  discusses ;  he  leaves  what  is  occasional  to 
theologians,  and,  like  the  bee  gathering  honey,  he  seeks 
everywhere  in  the  Bible  his  special  food.  In  each  narra- 
tive, in  each  doctrine,  in  each  sentence,  he  gathers  some- 
thing, and  appropriates  and  assimilates  that  which  is 
essential  to  himself.  He  thus  receives  a  general  im- 
pression of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  finds  that  happy 
and  salutary  combination  of  knowledge  and  motives 
which  they  everywhere  present.  Dwelling  upon  that 
which  especially  arrests  his  attention,  the  ordinary  Chris- 
tian, of  whom  we  speak,  will  seize  upon  that  which  is 
most  in  harmony  with  his  intellectual  and  moral  idio- 
syncrasy. 

Hence  result  in  different  individuals,  equally  pious 
and  sincere,  different  impressions  of,  and  marked  tend- 
encies toward,  such  and  such  a  phase  of  revealed  truth. 
From  this  cause  arises  a  variety  of  doctrines  in  the 
Church.  We  can  account,  in  the  same  way,  for  the 
mysterious  power  of  the  Bible  upon  the  most  distinct 
individualities.  It  can  shed  its  light  upon  every  variety 
of  character,  and  cause  its  penetrating  influence  to  be 


Nahire  of  Inspiration.  263 


felt  in  minds  differently  situated,  and  even  in  apparent 
opposition. 

It  is  different  with  the  theologian  who  is  called  to 
teach.  In  his  character,  as  a  Christian,  he  must,  without 
doubt,  first  of  all,  use  the  Bible  for  his  own  spiritual 
good.  But  the  fact  that  he  is  charged  with  the  duty  of 
teaching  others  renders  it  impossible  for  him  to  set 
aside  that  which  is  obscure  and  occasional.  He  can 
not  limit  himself  to  receiving  and  giving  a  combined 
impression.  He  must  explain  all  the  difficulties,  unveil 
all  obscurities,  and  bring  out  the  truth  in  its  full  light. 
He  must  proceed  by  analysis  and  end  by  synthesis. 
God,  doubtless,  could  have  given  another  form  to  the 
Bible  and  another  law  to  revelation,  but  He  has  not 
done  it  ;  we  must,  therefore,  accept  with  confidence  and 
docility  what  He  has  given  to  us.  In  this  work,  as  in 
every  other,  it  is  His  will  that  man  should  employ  his 
activity.  It  is  His  will  that  we  should  procure  by  labor 
the  aliment  of  the  mind  as  well  as  that  of  the  body,  and 
that  we  should  be  responsible  in  the  one  case  as  well  as 
in  the  other. 

Every  one  will  understand,  without  its  being  necessary 
to  insist  upon  them  here,  the  important  consequences 
which  this  point  of  view  and  the  theory  of  occasionally, 
with  which  it  is  connected,  have  upon  Apologetics.  It 
furnishes  a  complete  answer  to  two  classes  of  objec- 
tions— those  which  relate  to  the  form  of  the  Bible,  with- 
out apparent  order  and  without  method,  and  those 
which  are  founded  upon  many  obscure  details — facts 
intended  for  others  and  not  for  us,  i.  e.,  details  and  facts 
having  the  character  of  occasionality. 


264  Biblical  Hcrmeneutics. 


B.  HERMENEUTICAL   CONSEQUENCES. 

§153.    RELATIVE    CHARACTER    OF    CERTAIN    PORTIONS 
OF   THE    BIBLE. 

Since  the  Bible  was  written  "  at  sundry  times  "  and  on 
different  occasions,  it  must  sometimes  have  a  relative 
character.  In  other  words,  portions  of  it  must  be  rela- 
tive to  certain  men  and  to  certain  times.  Many  of  its 
details,  of  its  forms  of  instruction,  of  its  reasonings,  and 
even  of  its  institutions,  must  necessarily  be  occasional, 
that  is,  relative. 

As  a  whole,  it  has,  without  doubt,  a  general  utility  for 
the  human  family.  But  very  often  this  utility,  especi- 
ally in  the  Old  Testament,  will  be  that  of  documents  to 
consult,  of  history  to  read,  and  not  that  of  direct  pre- 
cepts to  be  received,  nor  of  institutions  to  be  preserved. 
It  is  important  to  observe  this  in  practice.  It  is  strange 
that  it  has  been  so  often  forgotten. 

This  consequence  results  in  the  most  precise  and  in- 
contestable manner  from  the  principle  of  occasionally, 
also  from  the  Sacred  History,  from  the  local  nature  of 
the  Mosaic  institutions,  from  their  abrogation  in  the  New 
Testament,  from  certain  declarations  which  accompany 
certain  commandments,  and  from  the  manner  in  which 
they  were  understood  and  accepted  by  inspired  men 
themselves.  In  fact,  we  find  in  the  Bible  precepts  rela- 
tive to  each  dispensation. 

§  154.   NECESSARY   REUNION    OF    THE    DIFFERENT    BIB- 
LICAL  ELEMENTS. 

All  the  portions  of  the  Bible,  even  those  which  are 
most  evidently  occasional  and  local,  have,  as  we  have 
said,  a  real  utility  for  the  whole  hurran  family,  at  least  a 


Nahire  of  Inspiration.  265 

utility  historical  and  mediate.  It  results  from  this,  that 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  religious  teacher  and  of  the  ordi- 
nary Christian  not  to  isolate  any  of  the  elements,  but  to 
combine  them.  It  is  the  whole  combined  that  we  must 
study,  observing  the  adaptation  of  its  various  parts  to 
the  different  dispensations  of  the  Church  and  to  the  hu- 
man race  in  general,  and  thus  acquiring  a  clear  view  of  its 
completeness  as  a  revelation  intended  for  men  in  every 
age  and  in  every  country.  To  exclude  voluntarily  from 
our  studies  and  from  our  means  of  edification  any  por- 
tions of  the  Bible,  would  be  to  proceed  against  the  will 
of  God,  and  to  substitute  in  place  of  the  whole  volume 
which  God  has  given  us,  another  of  our  own  choice. 
Christians,  while  they  receive  both  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testaments  as  inspired  and  of  divine  authority,  should 
place  the  New  Testament  upon  a  plane  higher  than  that 
of  the  Old  Testament.  They  should  remember  that 
both  reveal  the  same  plan  of  grace,  that,  notwithstand- 
ing the  fuller  and  clearer  revelation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, the  Old  is  of  great  historical  importance,  that  it 
reveals  very  fully  and  clearly  the  plans  and  perfections 
of  God,  that  it  contains  Messianic  prophecies,  some  of 
which  are  remarkably  adapted  to  strengthen  our  faith, 
that  some  parts  of  it  are  of  the  highest  interest  and 
utility,  e.g.,  the  Mosaic  Legislation;  that  it  guides  our 
faith  and  thoughts  to  the  New,  and  furnishes  us  in  the 
Psalms  rich  aliment  for  our  spiritual  nature. 

It  is  equally  obligatory  upon  Christians  to  study  the 
New  Testament  as  a  whole,  and  in  its  connection  with 
the  Old,  and  not  to  confine  themselves  to  some  isolated 
portions. 

Too  often,  in  the  interest  of  party  zeal,  some  have  at- 
tempted to  disunite  the  sacred  volume.  They  have 
confined  themselves,  and  advised  others  to  do  the  same, 
to  the  reading  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  sometimes  to  the 
12 


266  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

Epistle  to  the  Romans  alone,  sometimes  to  the  writings 
of  St.  John,  sometimes  to  the  Evangelists;  and  some- 
times in  the  Evangelists,  to  the  discourses  of  Jesus 
Christ,  separated  from  His  miracles  and  history.  There 
are  men  who  seem  to  concentrate  the  whole  of  revelation 
in  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  and  in  the 
Apocalypse.  All  this  is  wrong,  pernicious  to  faith,  and 
destructive  of  true  piety. 


Third  Question  :  Does  inspiration  exclude  all  ac- 
commodation ? 

Chapter  First. 

STATE  OF  THE  QUESTION. 
§155.   DISTINCTION — DEFINITION. 

There  is  a  false  accommodation,  and  there  is  a  true 
accommodation.  The  former  relates  to  the  matter  ;  the 
latter  has  respect  to  the  form.  The  former  holds  that 
Christ  and  His  apostles  accommodated  themselves  to 
the  modes  of  thought  and  contemplation  around  them, 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  admit  error  into  their  instruc- 
tions in  respect  to  the  interpretation  of  Scripture,  or  in 
respect  to  forms  of  opinion  and  articles  of  belief ;  the 
latter,  that  they  fell  in  with  prevalent  modes  of  thought 
or  forms  of  conception,  so  as  not  to  lend  countenance 
to  error,  but  to  serve  for  the  better  apprehension  of  the 
truth.  The  former  is  incompatible  with  inspired  wisdom  ; 
the  latter  is  compatible  with  it.  It  is  an  act  of  conde- 
scension on  the  part  of  God,  by  which,  in  His  wisdom 
and  goodness,  He  adapts  revelation  to  human  capacity, 
in  order  that  it  may  be  understood  and  rendered  effect- 
ual for  our  salvation.  This  definition  contains  the 
statement  of  a  fact  and  of  an  object,  which  are   indis- 


Nature  of  Inspiration.  267 

solubly  united.  The  fact  is  the  form,  more  or  less  exact, 
more  or  less  complete,  given  to  revelation.  The  object 
is  to  enable  man  to  understand  it  and  accept  it.  Take 
away  the  one  or  the  other,  and  there  is  no  such  thing  as 
accommodation. 

The  most  natural  and  the  most  appropriate  illustration 
of  accommodation,  on  the  part  of  God,  is  furnished  by 
a  parent  in  the  instruction  of  his  child.  Every  pious 
and  sensible  father,  when  teaching  his  child  the  knowl- 
edge of  God,  uses  language  adapted  to  his  capacity,  and 
studiously  avoids  expressions  philosophically  exact.  In 
the  same  way  God  chooses  the  ideas  and  the  language 
best  adapted  to  convey  revealed  truth  to  the  mind  of 
man.  This  is  all  that  is  meant  by  accommodation,  which 
we  find  in  the  expression,  in  the  occasion,  in  gradual 
revelation,  in  limitation,  in  the  time,  or  in  the  mode  of 
teaching  ;  for  in  these  various  respects  the  divine  wisdom 
may  require  that  God  should  accommodate  Himself  to 
human  weakness,  in  order  to  attain  the  object  of  reve- 
lation. 

It  follows  from  this  statement  of  the  matter  that  oc- 
casionally, notwithstanding  its  peculiar  character,  is  in- 
cluded under  accommodation  as  a  species  under  a  genus. 
We  treated  of  it  separately,  on  account  of  its  frequency, 
and  of  the  specialty  of  its  applications.  But  here  we 
proceed  from  the  species  to  the  genus,  from  the  special 
case  to  the  general  law,  which  must  necessarily  be  ex- 
amined in  its  whole  extent. 

The  term  accommodation,  as  employed  by  some,  has 
given  rise  to  well-grounded  objections  ;  but  as  we  use  it, 
no  reasonable  objection  can  be  made  to  it.  The  ques- 
tion respecting  it  may  be  stated  thus : 

In  the  manner  of  conveying  revelation  to  man,  was 
any  concession  made  to  the  limitation  of  his  faculties, 


268  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  influence  of  that  revela- 
tion upon  him  ? 

This  question  is  perfectly  legitimate,  and  the  answer 
to  it  must  be  derived  from  the  facts  of  Scripture. 


Chapter  Second. 

NECESSITY  OF  ACCOMMODATION. 

§156.    GENERAL  NECESSITY. 

We  may  affirm,  a  priori,  the  necessity  of  accommoda- 
tion in  revelation.  The  necessity  arises  from  the  definition 
already  given  of  the  object  of  revelation,  which  is  to  give 
to  man  such  knowledge  of  God  as  is  necessary  to  his  re- 
generation and  salvation.  But  in  order  to  this,  the 
Infinite  must  condescend  to  adapt  it  to  the  understand- 
ing of  the  finite.  Consequently,  it  is  not  the  truth  as  it 
exists  in  its  fullness  and  exactness  in  the  Divine  mind, 
that  God  imparts  to  the  human  mind,  but  intelligible, 
saving  truth,  truth  proportionate  to  our  faculties  and 
our  needs,  truth  clothed  in  a  form  fitted  to  bring  it 
within  the  grasp  of  the  understanding.  The  employ- 
ment of  human  language  is  an  incontestable  accommo- 
dation, for  language  made  to  express  human  ideas  is 
necessarily  incapable  of  rendering  exactly  the  infinite 
nature  and  counsels  of  God. 

But  it  is  not  only  in  the  use  of  human  language  that 
accommodation  consists.  We  find  it  also  in  the  choice 
of  popular  words,  in  the  use  of  striking  figures,  in  the 
preference  given  to  elementary  teaching,  in  arguments 
ad  homincjn,  which  are  more  convincing  to  contempora- 
ries than  those  which  are  rigorously  logical,  in  the  grad- 
ual progress  observed  in  the  revelation  of  certain  doc- 


Nature  of  Inspiration.  269 

trines,  and  finally  in  the  temporary  toleration  of  certain 
practices,  which  revelation  was  intended,  but  required 
time  to  eradicate. 

§  157.    SPECIAL   NECESSITY. 

The  necessity  of  accommodation  will  appear  still 
stronger  if  we  consider  the  people  to  whom  revelation 
was,  at  first,  more  directly  addressed.     Compare  §§  73, 

74- 

1.  It  was  addressed  principally  to  the  ignorant  masses, 
to  the  poor  and  despised  ones  of  the  world,  who  have 
always  formed  the  great  majority  of  the  human  family. 
Among  them  are  found  the  most  urgent  wants,  the  most 
numerous  miseries,  the  most  ignorant  minds,  and  conse- 
quently among  them  accommodation  is  the  more  neces- 
sary. Can  any  one  suppose  that  God  would  sacrifice 
these  ignorant,  despised,  and  groaning  masses  to  a  logi- 
cal and  philosophical  rigor  of  statement  in  the  doctrines 
and  form  of  revelation  ? 

2.  In  the  second  place,  revelation  was  addressed  par- 
tially to  the  Hebrew  people — a  people  not  addicted  to 
metaphysical  speculation  and  philosophical  deduction. 
This  people  were  chosen  to  prepare  the  way  for  Chris- 
tianity ;  but  few  of  them  received  it.  The  revelation 
which  was  given  to  them  in  the  meantime  was  for  them, 
adapted  to  their  spiritual  wants,  and  on  a  level  with  their 
capacity.  It  was  necessarily,  therefore,  provisional  and 
incomplete  ;  in  other  words,  it  was  a  divine  accommo- 
dation (Heb.  viii.  7-13). 

3.  Christianity  itself,  the  perfect  revelation,  and  in- 
tended for  all,  was  addressed  first  to  the  Jews,  the 
descendants  of  the  Hebrews.  These  Jews,  in  the  time 
of  our  Saviour,  were  in  advance  of  their  ancestors  ;  but 
they  were  nevertheless  far  behind  the  Greeks  in  abstract 
thought,  in  logical  processes,  and  in  philosophical  investi- 


270  Biblical  Henncneutics. 


gation.  Their  intellectual  tendency  manifested  itself  in 
subtleties,  in  ardor  of  imagination,  passion,  and  curi- 
osity. The  methods  of  reasoning  which  were  most 
effectual  among  them,  consisted  in  appeals  to  the  au- 
thority of  the  Old  Testament,  and  in  concrete  statements 
of  the  truth.  Hence  the  necessity  of  having  recourse, 
among  them,  to  citations,  to  figures,  and  parables. 

4.  A  little  later,  Christianity  was  preached  among  the 
heathen  nations.  Among  them  accommodation  was  less 
generally  necessary,  because  their  multiplicity  of  gods 
and  their  flexibility  of  intellect  rendered  them  more 
capable  of  modifying  their  ideas  and  their  beliefs.  At 
the  same  time,  accommodation,  among  them,  was  more 
dangerous,  because  pagan  ideas  led  away  from  Chris- 
tianity, instead  of  preparing  for  it,  as  did  Jewish  ideas. 
Nevertheless,  some  accommodation  was  necessary  among 
the  heathen  ;  facts,  at  least,  prove  that  it  was  used.  St. 
Paul  and  St.  John  sometimes  expressed  Christian  ideas 
in  terms  derived  from  the  language  of  Oriental  philos- 
ophy. 

5.  We  remark,  finally,  that  Revelation,  in  consequence 
of  its  very  object,  must  address  itself  more  to  the  sensi- 
bility and  the  imagination  of  men  than  to  their  intellect 
and  their  logical  faculty.  Compare  §74.  In  fact,  it  was 
not  intended  to  elaborate  a  system  of  theology,  but  to 
kindle  a  new  life  in  the  heart.  It  is  upon  the  will  that 
it  essentially  acts ;  it  is  by  love  that  it  regenerates 
humanity.  Such  an  object  supposes  accommodation, 
or  rather  it  is  itself  an  accommodation.  It  necessitates 
the  adaptation  of  revealed  doctrines  and  the  teaching  of 
them  to  the  heart,  the  faculties,  the  wants,  and  miseries 
of  man. 


Nature  of  Inspii'ation.  271 

Chapter  Third. 

FACTS   OF   SCRIPTURE. 

§158.    GENERAL   STATEMENT. 

We  have  shown  the  necessity  of  accommodation. 
We  come  now  to  the  examination  of  facts.  These  facts 
we  will  arrange  under  two  heads :  (1).  Accommodation 
pertaining  to  the  general  plan  of  Revelation  ;  (2).  Ac- 
commodation in  the  discourses  of  Jesus  Christ  and  in 
the  writings  of  His  Apostles. 

A.   ACCOMMODATION    PERTAINING    TO     THE    GEN- 
ERAL  PLAN   OF    REVELATION. 

§  1 59.     ACCOMMODATION     OF     FORMS. 

Every  deviation  from  strict  philosophical  truth  is  an 
accommodation.  All  the  anthropomorphisms  of  Script- 
ure and  all  its  figures  are  accommodations  of  form  ;  and 
we  have  no  need  of  proving  again  that  the  Bible  is  full 
of  them.  They  can  not  be  said  to  belong  solely  to  the 
individuality  of  the  writers,  but  to  the  intention  of  God, 
who  chose  these  writers  and  respected  their  individu- 
ality. They  are  linked,  therefore,  to  the  general  plan  of 
Revelation. 

As  small  accommodations  prove  as  much  as  great 
ones,  and  are  sometimes  more  striking  and  less  contest- 
ed ;  and  as  a  single  case  is  sufficient  for  illustration,  we 
will  cite  for  that  purpose  the  words  "  before  me  "  [liter- 
ally, "  before  my  face  "]  in  the  Decalogue.  These  words 
add  much  force  and  solemnity  to  the  first  of  the  ten 
commandments,  which  were  "  written  by  the  finger  of 
God  "  upon  the  two  tables  of  stone  (Ex.  xxxi.  18).     But 


272  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 


they  evidently  form  an  anthropomorphic  expression  well 
fitted  to  Convey  a  truth  to  the  mind  and  a  sentiment  to 
the  heart. 

Accommodations  of  form,  in  the  Old  Testament,  are 
clearly  affirmed  in  Hab.  vi.  13-18.  The  sacred  author 
teaches  us,  in  that  passage,  that  the  oath  which  God 
made  to  Abraham  was  an  accommodation  to  human 
usages.  This  oath,  relatively  to  God,  was  merely  a 
strong  asseveration,  for  He  could  not  swear  by  any  one 
greater  than  Himself.  Its  whole  force  and  solemnity 
belonged  to  the  paternal  condescension  of  which  it  was 
the  pledge,  that  is,  to  accommodation. 

§  160.  ACCOMMODATION   OF  MATTER — OLD  TESTAMENT. 

The  accommodation  which  now  occupies  our  atten- 
tion, pertains  to  doctrine  and  morals.  It  could  not  be- 
long to  the  individuality  of  the  sacred  writers,  but  to  the 
nature  and  the  extent  of  the  knowledge  which  they 
received. 

Let  us  first  notice  moral  accommodation.  Jesus 
Christ  teaches  us  in  a  very  distinct  manner,  that  moral 
accommodation  was  allowed  in  the  Law  of  Moses ;  in 
other  words,  that  his  Law  forbore  a  perfection  of  dis- 
cipline. "  Moses,"  says  the  Saviour,  "  because  of  the 
hardness  of  your  hearts  suffered  you  to  put  away  your 
wives ;  but  from  the  beginning  it  was  not  so  "  (Matt. 
xix.  8). 

We  now  pass  to  accommodation  in  doctrine. 

In  the  Pentateuch  God  is  represented  as  occupying  a 
particular  place  in  space,  and  as  marching  at  the  head  of 
the  Hebrew  people  (Ex.  xxxiii.  3,  5,  12-17). 

The  burning  bush,  the  pillar  of  cloud,  the  thunders  of 
Sinai,  the  divine  glory  seen  on  the  mountain,  symbolize 
the  Divine  presence,  by  attaching  to  it  the  ideas  of  flame 


Nature  of  Inspiration.  273 

and  light  (Ex.  iii.  2;  xiii.  21  ;  xix.  16;  xxiv.  10).  Ani- 
mal sacrifices  were  thought  to  expiate  sins.  External 
and  ceremonial  observances  were  prescribed  as  assuring 
and  meriting  the  protection  of  Jehovah  (Deut.  xxvi. 
12-15). 

If  we  pass  from  the  Pentateuch  to  the  Prophets,  we 
will  find  in  them  numerous  instances  of  accommodation, 
which  might  be  ranged  under  those  which  pertain  only 
to  the  form.  We  refer  to  the  terrestrial  images,  under 
which  the  advent  of  Christ  and  salvation  by  Him  were 
announced.  Take,  for  example,  in  Isaiah,  the  exaltation 
of  Jerusalem  over  the  nations,  and  the  eagerness  of 
those  nations  to  go  up  to  her  to  worship  Jehovah  (Is.  ii. 
2,  3  ;  xi.  10-16;  xlix.  18-23);  the  material  images  of  the 
effects  of  Christian  piety  (Is.  xi.  6-9;  xxxii.  16;  lxv. 
19-25);    the   triumphs   of    the    Messiah,   etc.    (Is.   xlii. 

I3-I7)- 

The  same  images  are  found  in  the  other  prophets. 
Upon  this  and  the  preceding  section,  compare  §  119. 

§  161.    SAME   CONTINUED— NEW   TESTAMENT. 

Is  there  in  the  New  Testament  any  accommodation 
of  doctrine?  In  other  terms,  are  there  in  the  general 
plan  of  Christian  revelation  any  doctrines  incomplete 
which  present  revealed  truth  under  an  imperfect  point 
of  view,  modified  by  and  blended  with  the  religious 
ideas  of  the  time  in  which  it  was  written  ?  Are  the  doc- 
trines of  the  New  Testament  intended  to  appear  to  us 
at  some  time,  in  heaven  for  example,  as  inadequate  ex- 
pressions of  the  plans  of  God,  but  at  the  same  time  the 
best  adapted  to  give  us  in  this  world  an  idea  of  these 
plans  ?  Are  they  meant  to  lead  us,  not  like  the  Law,  to 
Christ  by  Moses,  but  to  the  Father  and  to  heaven  by 
Christ? 


274  Biblical  Hermetietitics. 

These  questions  are  put  by  Prof.  Cellerier,  and  require 
an  answer. 

If  by  accommodation,  in  this  connection,  is  meant 
that  Christ  and  His  apostles  accommodated  themselves 
to  the  ignorance  and  prejudices  of  the  Jews,  we  reject 
it  as  derogatory  to  the  character  of  our  Lord,  and  to 
that  of  the  sacred  writers  of  the  New  Testament.  Infi- 
delity itself  has  not  impeached  the  rectitude  and  purity 
of  the  Saviour.  His  life  has  always  been  reckoned  the 
embodiment  of  absolute  perfection.  No  one,  after  a 
careful  perusal  of  the  New  Testament,  can  point  to  any 
compromise  between  truth  and  error. 

In  regard  to  the  question,  "  Whether  the  doctrines  of 
the  New  Testament  are  intended  to  appear  to  us,  at 
some  time,  in  heaven  for  example,  as  inadequate  expres- 
sions of  the  plans  of  God,  while  they  are  the  best 
adapted  to  give  us  in  this  world  an  idea  of  these  plans, 
we  are  not  competent  to  speak.  It  is  not  for  us  to  say 
what  may  be  done  in  heaven  ;  but  the  Scriptures  contain 
no  intimation  that  a  revelation  supplementary  to  the 
New  Testament  will  be  given  to  us  in  our  present  state 
of  existence.  The  Old  Testament  teaches  its  own  in- 
choate character,  and  points  us  to  the  present  economy 
as  one  more  perfect,  inasmuch  as  it  enjoys  a  fuller  reve- 
lation ;  and  the  New  Testament  refers  to  the  institutions 
of  the  Old  Testament  as  the  rudiments  of  the  Christian 
dispensation,  as  a  "  shadow  of  good  things  to  come" 
(Gal.  iv.  3-9;  Heb.  x.  1).  The  New  Testament  revela- 
tion is,  therefore,  supplementary  to  the  Old,  or  rather, 
it  is  the  unfolding  of  it ;  it  is  perfect  and  final  so  far  as 
it  pertains  to  this  world. 

If  accommodation  refers  to  the  mode  of  argumenta- 
tion, the  form  of  teaching,  or  the  manner  in  which  doc- 
trines were  propounded  by  Christ  and  His  apostles  to 
suit  the  tastes  and  faculties  of  their  hearers,  then  many 


Natwe  of  Inspiration.  275 

instances  of  it  occur  in  the  New  Testament.  The  use 
of  parables,  proverbs,  and  allegories  was  a  prudent 
adaptation  to  the  state  of  knowledge  among  the  people, 
just  as  every  wise  instructor  suits  his  lessons  to  the 
capacities  of  his  hearers,  by  giving  milk  to  babes  and 
strong  meat  to  full-grown  men.  This  discreet  method 
of  instruction  was  observed  by  Christ  and  His  apostles. 
Hence  we  see  a  progressive  system  of  teaching  in  the 
New  Testament,  marked  by  distinct  stages.* 

§  162.  ACCOMMODATIONS  IN   THE  DISCOURSES   OF 
JESUS  CHRIST,  AND  IN  THOSE  OF  HIS  APOSTLES. 

We  pass  from  the  general  discussion  of  accommoda- 
tion in  the  New  Testament,  to  the  discourses  of  Jesus 
Christ.  Do  we  find,  in  His  teaching,  any  accommoda- 
tions to  the  circumstances  of  locality,  time,  and  persons? 

The  language  of  Christ  is  almost  constantly  marked 
by  local  colors,  and  clothed  in  contemporary  forms, 
which  can  be  regarded  only  as  accommodations  necessary 
to  make  His  discourses  understood  by  His  immediate 
auditors. 

We  will  give  some  instances,  the  number  of  which 
might  be  indefinitely  increased. 

Christ  says,  in  Matt.  viii.  II,  "I  say  unto  you,  that 
many  shall  come  from  the  east  and  west,  and  shall  sit 
down  with  Abraham,  and  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  in  the  king- 
dom of  heaven." 

In  Matt.  xxvi.  29,  we  read  that  He  said  to  His  dis- 
ciples, "  I  will  not  drink  henceforth  of  this  fruit  of  the 
vine,  until  that  day  when  I  shall  drink  it  new  with  you 
in  my  Father's  kingdom."     This  passage  is  repeated  in 


*  "  Davidson's  Sacred  Hermeneutics,"  p.  200.  Edinburgh  :  Thomas 
Clark,  1843. — Bernard's  Bampton  Lectures.  Boston  :  Gould  and  Lin 
coin,  1S67. 


276  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

Luke  xxii.  18,  and  in  Mark  xiv.  25.  In  the  last  instance, 
it  is  preceded  by  the  solemn  formula,  "  verily."  In 
these  quotations,  there  is  evident  allusion  to  the  social 
entertainments  of  this  world  ;  and  the  language  pertain- 
ing to  these  is  employed  to  represent  the  social  condi- 
tion of  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 

As  an  instance  of  accommodation  on  the  part  of  the 
apostles,  see  1  Cor.  ix.  19-22. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  enumerate  any  more  examples. 
They  abound  in  all  the  Saviour's  teachings,  and  are 
found  in  all  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament.  To 
interpret  them  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  manners 
and  customs  of  the  times.  An  acquaintance  with  sacred 
geography,  chronology,  and  history  is  also  requisite  to 
understand  accommodations  to  the  circumstances  of 
locality  and  time. 

§  163.    CONCLUDING   REMARKS. 

We  hold  the  doctrine  of  plenary  inspiration,  and  be- 
lieve that  all  the  facts  of  Scripture  are  consistent  with  it. 
Objections  to  this  doctrine  have  been  founded  on  the 
individuality  of  the  sacred  writers.  The  expression  of 
their  personal  feelings,  experience,  and  beliefs ;  the  va- 
riety of  conception  and  expression  in  their  statements 
of  the  same  truths,  and  in  their  narratives  of  the  same 
events,  have  been  appealed  to  as  proofs  that  they  were 
not  plenarily  inspired.  Their  individuality  has  been 
admitted.  It  has  been  admitted  that  the  Scriptures  are 
of  human  authorship,  and,  at  the  same  time,  of  divine 
authorship.  Two  factors — the  Holy  Spirit  and  the  sa- 
cred writers — co-operated  in  their  production  ;  and  the 
result  was  an  infallible  book  (§§  145-149).  The  union 
of  these  two  factors  is  acknowledged  to  be  a  mystery, 
but  not  an  impossibility,  as  the  illustrative  facts,  adduced 


Nature  of  Inspiration.  277 

in  those  sections,  clearly  show.  The  human  element 
was  no  less  human,  because  it  wrought  with  the  divine  ; 
and  the  divine  element  was  no  less  divine,  because  it 
wrought  with  the  human.  The  Scriptures  afford  evi- 
dence of  the  perfection  and  harmonious  working  of  both. 

If  the  individuality  of  the  sacred  writers  is  consistent 
with  plenary  inspiration,  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  how 
occasionality,  or  the  individuality  of  circumstances — as 
occasion,  time,  place,  and  persons  addressed — can  be  so. 
These  limitations  would  merely  affect  the  range  and  ob- 
ject of  inspiration,  not  its  nature.  They  are  as  compati- 
ble with  that  as  the  wider  limitations  of  earth  and  time. 

Some  have  taught,  as  has  been  stated  (§  155),  that  our 
Lord  and  the  sacred  writers  spoke  and  wrote  occasion- 
ally, according  to  the  prevailing  opinions  of  the  times, 
and  not  according  to  the  truth  of  things.  Such  an  ac- 
commodation we  reject  as  inconsistent  with  our  views 
of  inspiration,  and  with  the  facts  of  Scripture  rightly 
understood.  But  an  accommodation  which  has  respect 
to  the  form  merely  of  the  doctrines,  or  lessons  taught, 
we  hold  to  be  admissible  and  even  necessary.  It  is  re- 
quired by  our  mental  and  moral  constitution.  Revela- 
tion and  inspiration  would  be  impossible  without  it. 

The  natural  deficiencies  of  the  sacred  writers  are  con- 
sistent with  the  doctrine  of  plenary  inspiration.  Some 
of  them  were  deficient  in  education,  in  literary  capacity, 
in  intellectual  endowments,  and  in  refinement.  These 
things  had  nothing  to  do  with  inspiration.  They  belonged 
to  the  sacred  writers  as  men ;  and  when  they  received 
the  divine  commission  to  write,  it  was  not  necessary  to 
endow  them  with  the  taste  and  to  adorn  them  with  the 
classic  elegance  of  Sophocles  and  Plato.  Inspiration 
did  not  change  a  single  faculty  of  the  mind  ;  neither  did 
it  supply  information  on  any  subject  beyond  its  range  ; 
that  was  the  province  of   revelation.     It   did  not  make 


278  Biblical  Hermeneutics. 

grammarians,  rhetoricians,  nor  logicians.  In  these  things 
it  left  the  man  as  it  found  him.  Had  this  been  kept  in 
mind,  the  extremes  of  the  Hebraists  and  Purists  would 
have  been  avoided.  The  Scriptures  would  not  have 
been  represented,  on  the  one  hand,  as  abounding  in 
Hebrew  idioms  and  constructions,  and  in  solecisms ; 
nor,  on  the  other  hand,  as  models  of  classic  excellence, 
and  standards  of  literary  taste. 

Statements  in  the  Bible  which  do  not  come  from 
God,  and  which  are  not  sanctioned  by  His  authority, 
are  consistent  with  plenary  inspiration.  The  sacred 
writer  merely  records  them;  and  the  record,  not  the. 
statements,  is  infallible.  The  inquiries  with  regard  to 
such  statements  must  always  be:  Who  is  the  author  of 
them  ?  Does  the  sacred  writer  approve  them  ?  or  does 
he  merely  record  them  as  parts  of  a  historical  narrative? 
If  the  latter,  they  furnish  no  argument  against  his  in- 
spiration. 

Quotations  made  by  the  writers  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment from  the  Old  have  occasioned  difficulty  in  the 
minds  of  many,  in  regard  to  the  subject  of  plenary  in- 
spiration. Some  of  these  quotations  are  taken  literally 
from  the  Septuagint  version,  where  it  differs  from  the 
Hebrew  ;  and  some  differ  from  both  the  original  text 
and  the  Septuagint  version,  even  where,  according  to 
our  exegesis,  the  Hebrew  text  and  the  Greek  translation 
correspond  to  each  other.  These  difficulties  rise  out  of 
the  strictly  verbal  theory  of  inspiration,  but  vanish  on 
the  dynamical  theory,  which  we  adopt. 


INDEX  OF  SCRIPTURE  PASSAGES  CITED  OR 
EXPLAINED. 


John  xx.  1 3 39 

Mark  ii.  5 53 

Matt.  v.  48 53 

Job  xiii.  15 59 

Ps.  viii.  6 74 

Ps.  lxxxii.  6 " 

John  x.  34,  35 " 

1  Cor.  viii.  5 " 

Luke  vi.  9 75 

John  xii.  25 " 

1  Thess.  v.  23 " 

James  i.  21 " 

James  iii.  15 " 

James  v.  20 " 

Acts  ii.  23   76 

Rom.  ii.  12 " 

1  Tim.  vi.  6 " 

2  Cor.  ix.  8 " 

Rom.  x.  2 " 

I  Cor.  iii.  3 " 

1  Cor.  xiv.  20 " 

Heb.  v.  13 " 

1  Cor.  xvi.  9 " 

1  Thess.  v.  6,  10 " 

Ezra  iv.  8 — vi.  18 " 

Ezra  vii.  12-26 " 

Jer.  x.  11 " 

Dan.  ii.  4 — vii.  28 " 

2  Cor.  xi.  6 yy 

Esther  ii.  7 80 

Ps.  xxxix.   5 " 

1  Sam.  ii.  3 90 

Ps.  cxhii.  2 91 

James  iii.  14. " 

Luke  xxi.  15 " 

John  iii.  15 92 

Mark  ix.  20 " 

Acts  iv.  7 " 

John  xiii.  29    93 

John  vii.  51 " 


1  Cor.  xvi.  9 93 

1  Cor.  iii.  2 " 

1  Tim.  iv.  3 " 

Luke  xiv.  5 " 

2  Cor.  v.  19 " 

Col.  ii.  19 94 

Gal.  ii.  6 " 

Luke  v.  14 " 

Acts  i.  4 " 

Mark  xi.  32 " 

Rom.  v.  6 " 

James  iv.  17 95 

1  Cor.  vi.  13 " 

1  Cor.  v.  13 " 

Rom.  i.  31 96 

Matt.  xvi.  18 " 

Luke  xix.  42 " 

Acts  viii.  30 " 

John  xxi.  25 97 

Heb.  xiii.  17 " 

Rom.  i.  16 " 

John  ii.  11 98 

Acts  ii.  21 " 

Matt.  x.  39 99 

Luke  ix.  60 " 

Luke  xiii.  33 100 

I  Cor.  iv.  8 " 

James  ii.  21 " 

Matt.  vi.  25 102 

Matt.  v.  10 " 

Matt.  xiii.  24 " 

Rom.  x.  8 103 

Jude  iii " 

Rom.  xiv.  23 " 

James  i.  6 104 

Rom.  xii.  3 " 

Rom.  iii.  28 105 

Gal.  ii.  20 " 

John  xvi.  8 107 

John  iii.  21 " 

(279) 


280  Index  of  Scripture  Passages. 


Matt,  xxiii.  9 107 

Phil.  ii.  12,  13 108 

1  John  iv.  1 " 

John  v.  39 109 

James  ii.  4 " 

Titus  i.  15 " 

Luke  xxi.  15 " 

John  xvi.  13 " 

Eph.  iv.  10 113 

Matt.  xix.  24. . .    " 

Matt.  xiii.  43 " 

Col.  i.  5 " 

2  Sam.  viii.  18 115 

1  Chron.  xviii.  17 " 

Mark  xi.  8 " 

Matt.  xxi.  8 " 

Matt.  xiii.  31 129 

Matt.  vi.  28-30 " 

Matt.  xvi.  2,  3 " 

John  xxi.  3-1 1 130 

Matt.  xvii.  24-27 135 

1  Cor.  ix.  24-27 " 

2  Cor.  xi.  6 ...  139 

1  Cor.  xv.  39-50 141 

Ps.  1 144 

Ps.  cvii " 

Is.  v.  1-6 " 

Ps.  lxxx " 

Mark  xii.  1-8 " 

1  Cor.  iii.  11-15 " 

I  Cor.  v.  6-8 " 

Hosea  i 145 

John  iii.  3 147 

John  i.  51 " 

Matt.  xi.  16 " 

John  x.  1— 16 " 

Rom.  viii.  17 148 

Mark  xii " 

Matt,  xxv 149 

Luke  xii.  36-39 1 50 

Matt.  xxv.  13 " 

John  viii.  59 153 

John  xviii.  6 154 

Matt.  xvi.  13 156 

Mark  viii.  27 " 

Luke  ix.  18,  28 " 

Mark  viii.  1 " 

Matt,  xxii 157 

Rom.  viii.  33-39 159 

Acts  xv.  29 161 

Matt.  x.  19 162 


Mark  xiii.  11 162 

Luke  xxi.  14 " 

John  xiv.  26 " 

John  xvi.  13 " 

Luke  ix.  50 163 

Luke  xi.  23 " 

Heb.  xi 164 

John  xx.  31 167 

Ruth  iv.  17-22 168 

Jonah  iv.  io,  11 " 

I  John  iii.  6 181 

1  John  i.  S-10 " 

1  John  ii.  1 " 

James  v.  14-16 " 

Col.  i.  20 188 

Ephes.  i.  10 " 

1  Cor.  xv.  23-28 189 

Acts  ix " 

Acts  xxii " 

Acts  xxvi " 

Matt.  xxvi.  6-13 " 

Mark  xiv.  3-9 " 

John  xii.  1-8 " 

Matt.  xxvi.  12       190 

Mark  xiv.  8 " 

Rom.  vii.  17-23 " 

Gal.  v.  17 " 

Rom.  iv.  25 191 

Rom.  iii.  25 " 

Rom.  v.  6 " 

1  Cor.  xv.  3 " 

2  Cor.  v.  21 " 

Gal.  i.  4 " 

Ephes.  v.  2 " 

Matt.  xx.  28 " 

John  x.  11 " 

1  Pet.  i.  18 " 

Is.  liii " 

Dan.  ix " 

1  Cor.  vi.  2,  3 " 

Matt.  xix.  28 192 

Luke  xxii.  30 " 

Gen.  xii.   55 193 

1  Cor.  iii.  16,  17 " 

1  Cor.  vi.  19 " 

1  Sam.  xiv.  27 194 

John  i.  3 " 

Ps.  xxxiii.  6 " 

Luke  xi.  1 1-13 195 

1  Cor.  viii.  6 198 

John  i.  29 " 


Index  of  Scripture  Passages. 


281 


I  John  ii.2 199 

1  Cor.  ix 202 

Matt,  xviii.   17 210 

Luke  xvi.  8 214 

Matt.  xxvi.  29 " 

Matt.  x.  19,  20 230 

Luke  xxi.  14,  1  5 ...     " 

John  xiv.  16,  17 " 

John  xvi.  13   " 

John  xv.  26 " 

John  xvi.  4 " 

Acts  ii " 

I  Cor.  xii.  28 " 

Rom.  xii.  4-6 " 

Ephes.  iv.  11,  12 " 

1  Tim.  iv.  14 " 

Ephcs.  iii.  5 " 

Gal.  i.  11,  12 231 

Acts  xv.  28 " 

1  Cor.  ii.  12,  13 " 

1  Cor.  xiv.  37 " 

1  Cor.  xv.  1-3 " 

Ephes.  iii.  3-5 " 

Heb.  ii.  4 *' 

Ex.  xxxv.  31 239 

John  iii.  34 " 

John  xvi.  13   " 

Matt.  x.  5-8 243 

Mark  vi.  7 " 

Luke  ix.  1,  2 " 

Luke  x.  9-20 " 

John  xx.  22 " 

Acts  ii 244 

Acts  x.  1-1 8,  44-48 " 

Acts  xv.  1-29 " 

1  Cor.  xiv.  1,  12,  13 " 

Luke  i.  1-4 245 

I  John  i.  1-3 " 

1  Pet.  i.  10,  n 246 

Acts  xvi.  9,  10 " 

Acts  xvi.  6,  7 " 

Rom.  i.  13 " 

Acts  xxv.  11,  12 " 

1  Cor.  ix.  22 " 

Acts  xv.  28 247 

Acts  x.  I — xi.  18 " 

Gal.  ii.  11 " 

Acts  xv.  36-39 " 

Acts  xxi.  17-26 " 

Gal.  i.   12 249 

John  iii.  31 251 


Luke  vii.  26 251 

1  Cor.  xiv.  32 " 

2  Cor.  xi.  6 " 

1  Pet.  i.  10,  11 " 

Matt.  x.  20 252 

Acts  ii.  4 " 

2  Pet.  i.  21 " 

John  x.  35 " 

Luke  xvi.  29,  3 1 " 

John  v.  39 " 

Matt.  v.  17,  18 " 

Matt.  xxii.  43 " 

Ps.  xcv.  7-1 1 " 

Heb.  iii.  7,11.. " 

Heb.  x.  15-17 " 

Jcr.  xxxi.  31-34 " 

Acts  xxviii.  25-27 " 

Is.  vi.  9,  10 " 

John  xii.  38,  39,  41 " 

Rom.  ix.  27,  29 " 

Rom.  x.  16,  20 " 

Matt.  ii.  17 " 

Gal.  v.  2 " 

Gal.  vi.  11 " 

John  vii.  23 " 

Acts  ii.  25 " 

1  Cor.  xiv.  32 253 

John  i.  1,  14 255 

1  Tim.  iv.  2 " 

James  i.  22,  23 " 

1  Pet.  ii.  2 " 

Is.  xl.8 " 

Luke  viii.  11 " 

Rom.  x.  17 " 

2  Cor.  iv.  2 " 

Ephes.  vi.  17 " 

Heb.  iv.  12 " 

Heb.  vi.  5 " 

1  Pet.  i.  23 " 

Rev.  xix.  13 " 

Luke  ii.  52 " 

Phil.  ii.  13 256 

Heb.  i.  3 " 

1  Cor.  v.  9 259 

Luke  xii.  41 260 

Heb.  viii.  7-13 269 

Exodus  xxxi.  18 271 

Hab.  vi.  13-18 272 

Matt.  xix.  8 " 

Ex.  xxxiii.  3,  5,  12-17 " 

Ex.  iii.  2 273 


282 


Index  of  Scripture  Passages. 


Ex.  xiii.  21 

Ex.  xix.  16 

Ex.  xxiv.  10 

Deut.  xxvi.  12-15. 

Is.  ii.  2,  3 

Is.  xi.  10-16 

Is.  xlix.  18-23 

Is.  xi.  6-9 

Is.  xxxii.  16 


273 


Is.  lxv.  19-25 273 

Is.  xlii.  13-17 " 

Gal.  iv.  3, 9    274 

Heb.  x.  1 " 

Matt.  xxvi.  29 275 

Matt.  viii.  11 " 

Mark  xiv.  25 276 

Luke  xxii.  18 " 

1  Cor.  ix.  19-22 " 


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